Myopia of Learning Essay

Learning processes are powerful aids to intelligence but sometime they fail in coping with confusing experience and complicated problems because they do not take in consideration distant times, distant place and failures. The first step in overcoming these limitations is recognizing them and trying to avoid so they would not effect negatively in our performance. â€Å"Experience is often a poor teacher†. Drawing conclusion from experiences is common in the business world but we tend to forget that these conclusions are merely just point of views of went wrong or not with a decision. Learning from experiences can make you fall in repetition if you see that this way of doing things did actually brought the desired outputs. By doing so we tend to forget that not every issue has the same circumstances and qualities so the same thing that worked in another issue may not work in this task. Details and causality are two main factors that sometimes can guide you in a performance that can be successful or a failure. Experiences from the history of the organization are narrowed also by the memory, conflict, turnover, and decentralization that make it difficult to be a reliable source of experience. That is why sometime experiences give a misleading route in coping with problems. Learning is a process and people can perform differently. There are people that acquire knowledge at different paces; some are what we call fast learner and slow ones. If we put these two persons in the same start, the fast learner would learn quickly and perform the activity faster than the other one. This means that the other person would never have the chance to do something and this will narrow its possibilities to progress and learn. In an organization you will find people that are inactive because they do not have the chance to be active so you will tend to rely more on the faster learner. The manager will help more in building a wall that will end up by firing the slow learner. Learning gives you a broad image of the short-run activities but it fails to give you a solution to the long-run ones. For example now we learn things that maybe in some years will be irrelevant due to the advancing of the technology and globalization, that change the markets every minute we learn. That means that you stay stuck in time, even though the market is developing and changing. You tend to apply exploitation when maybe it is exploration time and tend to apply exploration when you should apply exploitation. This imbalance is due to the learning process because you tend to apply the easiest and quickest way of dealing with an issue In conclusion learning is a process that has limitations when we have temporal myopia (short-run goals are being overestimate), spatial myopia (effect that occurs near to the learner) and failure myopia (we tend not to recognize failure and attribute them to luck). If we avoid these limitations and try not to be influenced by biases, learning can be rewarding. Our life is a journey of learning only that not every issue can be alike, so there is no perfect solution to all our problems but there are approaches from our experience that can be changed to suit a new issue. Work Cited Levinthal,Daniel & March, James. The myopia of learning. Strategic Management Journal (1986-1988); Winter 1993; 14, Special issue; ABI/IFORM Global.

Land Law Essay

Proprietary estoppel protects a person who has a non contractual agreement over land but they have suffered a detriment due to them acting upon a reliance based on an assurance made by the claimant. There has been much discussion in recent case law and academic commentaries as to the elements which make up the nature of proprietary estoppel. Unconscionaibility is a major point for discussion in deciding whether it should be treated as a separate element or if it is linked into the three main elements. This essay will consider and discuss the nature of proprietary estoppel and the two views on unconscionaibility; whether there will always be unconscionaibility if there has been a non-performance of an assurance causing the claimant to suffer a detriment based on the assurance which they relied on or if unconscionaibility should be proven as a separate element in each case. The starting point of proprietary estoppel was in the case of Willmott v Barber (1880) where five criteria were laid down, which had to be satisfied by a person claiming proprietary estoppel and the courts applied these criteria to a wide range of proprietary estoppel claims. However these criteria were criticised for being too strict leading to the broader approach established in Taylor Fashions Ltd v Liverpool Trustees Co Ltd (1982) where Oliver J stated: ‘whether, in particular individual circumstances, it would be unconscionable for a party to be permitted to deny that which, knowingly or unknowingly, he has allowed or encouraged another to assume to his detriment’. Although the approach became broader there still remained essential elements which must be satisfied for a successful claim. The more modern approach towards proprietary estoppel is based on three main elements, firstly an assurance of land or property being made to the claimant, the claimant relying on the assurance which has been made and finally the claimant suffering a detriment as a consequence of relying on the assurance made. The main point for discussion and questioning in proprietary estoppel is the role of unconscionaibility and whether it should be treated as a fourth element which too must be satisfied in order for a claim to be successful or if unconscionaibility is interlinked with the other elements of proprietary estoppel. Proprietary estoppel acts as ‘a sword and a shield’ and can be used in one of two ways. ‘Put positively, the reason why it is possible to use proprietary estoppel to generate a property interest in a favour of a claimant despite the absence of the normal formality rules is because of the need to prevent unconscionable conduct. This is why unconscionaibility is the foundation of estoppel. It is the antidote to the otherwise fatal absence of formality. ’ This is one of the views on unconscionaibility which suggest that unconscionaibility is at the heart of proprietary estoppel rather than a separate element of it. The first element of proprietary estoppel is encouragement where the claimant’s belief that they would have some rights over land or property has been encouraged by the promisor and this could have been done actively or passively. Active encouragement is seen in common expectation cases where the claimant has been actively persuaded through an express representation as in Inwards v Baker (1965) where a son was actively encouraged to build on his fathers land in the expectation that it would be his in the future. Common expectation cases are dealt with more generously by judges, compared to passive cases, as the promisor has lead the claimant to have a reasonable belief that they would acquire the land therefore leading them to rely upon that assurance causing them to suffer a detriment. It would be seen as unconscionable in a common expectation case for the claimant to have been encouraged to suffer a detriment for the promisor to then go back on their assurance, meaning that unconscionaibility is instantly a running theme in the elements as it can be seen at the first instance and should therefore not be treated as a separate element. The encouragement could also be passive, for example a land owner standing by watching someone build on their land knowing that somebody is acting under a mistaken belief. The nature of a passive expectation made to the claimant can be distinguished in commercial and domestic cases as was seen in Cobbe v Yeoman’s Row Management Ltd (2008) where the House of Lords established that the expectation of an interest in land should not be vague in a commercial situation. The expectation should be for ‘a certain interest in land’ for proprietary estoppel purposes which was not the expectation held by Cobbe therefore the expectation was held to be too vague. Lord Scott stated ‘Unconscionaibility in my opinion plays a very important part in the doctrine of equitable estoppel, in unifying and confirming, as it were, the other elements. If the other elements appear to be present but the result does not shock the conscience of the court, the analysis needs to be looked at again. This statement shows how case law endorses the unconscionaibility approach as being interlinked with the other elements of proprietary estoppel however if all of the elements are not satisfied there can not be a claim for proprietary estoppel as is the case here. In domestic (family) cases, the nature of the expectation doesn’t have to be so specific as long as there is an interest or right in land that would amount to a significant expectation. The assura nce made must be clear enough so that claimant is found to have relied upon. Lord Walker stated in the case of Thorner v Major (2009) â€Å"There is no definition of proprietary estoppel that is both comprehensive and uncontroversial†¦the doctrine is based on three main elements, although they express them in slightly different terms: a representation or assurance made to the claimant; reliance on it by the claimant; reliance on it by the claimant; and detriment to the claimant in consequence of his (reasonable) reliance† One view on unconscionaibility stated that ‘Once there has been detrimental reliance on an assurance, it is unconscionable to withdraw it’ therefore if it cannot be proven that an assurance existed then it wont be unconscionable for it to be withdrawn showing that unconscionaibility is a running theme within proprietary estoppel rather than a separate element. One difficulty in deciding these kinds of cases is that although an assurance has been made to the claimant in the way of a will, the claimant is also aware th at the will could be revoked at any time therefore the question to be asked is whether their reliance based on the assurance was adequate. The second element of proprietary estoppel is reliance where the claimant must have been encouraged to rely on the promisor’s assurance which has caused them to suffer a detrimental loss by changing their position and there must be a sufficient causal link between this in that the encouragement must have caused the detriment suffered. Reliance can not be treated as an element alone it has to have caused a change in the position of the claimant, if no detriment has been suffered then there can be no claim for proprietary estoppel. There are several ways in which the courts can show how the claimant was influenced to rely on the encouragement; firstly is by clearly showing that there has been a change in position by the claimants positive act, for example the claimant spending money on the land or making property improvements based on the assurance that it will become theirs, causing them to suffer a detriment. Where the claimant has acted in a way different to what he would had the assurance not been made nd relied on this can also show how the encouragement has influenced the reliance causing a detriment as in Jones (AE) v Jones (FW) (1977) where a son acted on the assurance of property becoming his left his job and house to live with his father, however had the assurance not had been made he would not have done this leading to the detriment that he suffered. There can be a presumption made that the claimant relied on the assurances given to them based on there conduct and in these cases the burden is put onto the other party to prove that the claimant did not rely on the promises made and this is hard to prove as it is a subjective matter based on the claimants state of mind. This was the case in Greasley v Cooke (1980) where the defendant did not have to prove that she relied on assurances as it was presumed from her conduct. The final element of proprietary estoppel is that the person must have suffered a detriment due to the reliance on the assurance which has caused a change in their position. The detriment suffered can be in many forms not just that of financial detriment although it must be substantial in making it unconscionable for the land owner to withdraw their promise of land to the claimant. Walton v Walton (1994) shows where financial detriment wasn’t the main detriment suffered, the claimant had suffered a personal detriment as he had spent years of his life relying on the assurance made to him that the farm would one day be his, and he couldn’t get those years of his life back. Public policy in formalities of contracts plays a major part in the deciding claims for proprietary estoppel. Section 2 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Previsions) Act 1989 states that (1) A contract for the sale or other disposition of an interest in land can only be made in writing and only by incorporating all the terms which the parties have expressly agreed in one document, or where contracts are exchanged, in each. This act stops informalities in land transfers where a claimant would be expected to sign up a contract but hasn’t done so, as in Cobbe, and this is where they would turn to proprietary estoppel to try and show that the detriment which they have suffered is due to the unconsionability of the removal of the assurance which they had originally relied on. Proprietary estoppel acts as a way around formalities and a form of protection for those who have not followed contractual formalities in the transfer of land. Why should people be able to use proprietary estoppel to make a claim for land where they have followed formalities and drawn up a contract as in Cobbe, it can be seen that it is not unconscionable for the promisor to withdraw as there is no contractual agreement. However in domestic cases where there wouldn’t always be an expectation of a legal contract to be drawn up proprietary estoppel can stop unfair decisions being made due to the lack of formalities where it would be unconscionable for the defendant to suffer a detriment due to an assurance on which they have relied. There are clearly two competing arguments against proprietary estoppel, the first being that ‘once there has been detrimental reliance on an assurance, it is unconscionable to withdraw it. Indicating that unconscionaibility is a function of the three elements. If unconscionaibility was seen as a separate element then it would be pointless in having formalities as it wouldn’t matter whether it was unconscionable or not as long as the other elements had been satisfied. The second view on unconscionaibility is that of it being a separate fourth element and in some circumstance this can be seen as being successful for example in commercial cases where the first three elements of proprietary estoppel have been established but it would be unconscionable for the claimant to benefit due to the lack of formalities and contractual agreement.

Investigative report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Investigative report - Essay Example I would listen to customer as I walked around. It is important for you to note that Wal-Mart food chain stores are not as effective as you may think. The retail stores have a shortage of employees, a problem that people could hardly discover. Despite this problem, I observed that they stock a wide range of food and grocery products (Kipple, Adam and Wherry 23). During my visit to this Wal-Mart grocery store, I found that most customers prefer to shop there because the retail outlet stocks a variety of foods and grocery products. The food chain store stocks products such as cereals, soft drinks, fish, milk, fruit and vegetables. The list of grocery products on the shelves is endless. I found out that the retail store have a strength in availing products to the consumers on time (Kipple, Adam and Wherry 24). You should note that my observations were supplemented by consumer talks, which were not deduced from interviews. Indeed, I walked around the retail store just like any other consumer and never interviewed anyone. On another different note, the retail store had a shortage of employees ranging from the shop attendants, cashiers to the supervisors. The customers were hanging around the corridors and shelves because there were few shop attendants to direct them. Additionally, the same customers would line up for several minutes before they pay for the goods to the cashiers. There were many customers inside the retail store, not because they loved the store so much, but, due to the fact that employees were inadequate. I had thought that Wal-Mart is perfect and efficient even before visiting their food chain store. Being the leading grocery business in the US and the world, one might think that there are no problems in its operations. You should note that the retail store does well in stocking many types of products, but, has a shortage of employees to meet the customer needs. I will go beyond and remind you that Whole Foods is another company that deals with

Article on opportunities of interprenuers Term Paper

Article on opportunities of interprenuers - Term Paper Example In order to better grasp a clearer picture, one does not only look at the external factors that dictate the course of action, but rather delve into the internal workings of the mind of an entrepreneur on how he deals with such external stimulants. To put it plainly, this deals with how entrepreneurs create opportunities subject to the way of how they generally think and analyse situations. Contrary to popular belief, opportunities are not easily just out there waiting to be ceased by whosoever first stumbles upon them, the subjective research points out that entrepreneurs possess a certain set of knowledge and a level of alertness which enables them to recognise and create these opportunities (Endres & Woods, 2007). It was already established earlier that the subjective approach is an inside-out analysis on the entrepreneur. With that said, past experiences and psychological and internal perspectives also dictate the behaviour and responses of an entrepreneur and must be considered in a subjective approach with the rationalization that individuals view their external environment with respect to their own way of thinking. It is important to understand how entrepreneurs generate their interpretations despite constraints of uncertainties and unknowns and how they overcome this and project profitability with respect to these hurdles. Based on the definition of economics, being comprised of two aspects of action such as the purposeful nature and the entrepreneurial element, it can be concluded that entrepreneurs have a high level of desired and contentment state since one cannot will to change ones current state if he is easily contentment. In simpler terms, entrepreneurs are ambitious people who ca n foresee and visualize the means and ends of an idea to generate profit (Endres & Woods, 2007). Alertness in the environment is a crucial attribute for entrepreneurs. The ability of recognising opportunities that

Just In Time Decisions the Best Decisions Essay

Just In Time Decisions the Best Decisions - Essay Example Therefore in making decision, there are many considerations that a manager makes. In their day to day work, manager is faced by various situations where they have to make a decision. Managers should rise that they are making that particular decision for the whole organization and not for themselves alone. This makes the magnitude of the decision made to be large same as the implications of this decision. As such manager must have the ability to think wide and compares options in order to make a decision. One of the most important skills that are needed for the manager as they go up the organization ladder is to have conceptual skills that can help them make abrupt decision for the organization. In this regard managers must have a higher degree of conceptual skills compared to other staff. It has been found out that technical and human skills though important in management are not enough to make an effective manager. Effective manager have been found to be those who can make abrupt de cision for their organizations which are made with small error margin. (Ken 2007, p. 143) This paper will look closely at the kind of decisions that a manager need to make. It will look at the just-in-time decision of decisions that are made over a long time. ... It has been shown that most organization depends on the decision that is made by their manager to implement strategies. In this regard the manger is given the overall role of deciding for the organization. Decision making process can be described as a process in which we make a chance from the many options that we are present with. We tend to consider a lot of things before we come up with a process that suits the best solution to the problem that we are facing. Therefore decision making is a process that involve input of many factors than at the end help us to come up with the best choice. Therefore the product of a decision making process is a choice. This choice must always be perceived as the best solution to the certain problem that we are facing. Therefore the process of decision making ends with the making of a choice among many options that we are presented with. Decisions making process can be descried as a mental pr4ocss with is cognitive in nature and which leads to making of a choice. It is a cognitive process the lead to making of a choice from the many options that we have. The final output of a decision making process is the choice they has been made by the individual. (Ullman 2006, p. 643) Taken from the cognitive point of view, decisions making process can be seen as a cognitive process that is contain in nature and it is closely associated with the environment. This means that the decision that we make is always s subject to the forces of the environment. Therefore in the organization, the decision that the manager makes will be affected by different environmental factors that will affect the decision made at the end. (Levi 2006, p. 276) From the normative perspective, decision making can

Economics and Healthcare Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Economics and Healthcare - Assignment Example Hence any significant change in the economy brings about simultaneous changes in access to and provision of health care. In a system which is bound by an employment-based healthcare coverage and where provision of healthcare essentially depends on the country’s economy, understanding the impact of economics on health care is of crucial significance. The healthcare system in the United States is focused on provision of services which are cost-effective to consumers who demand greater accessibility and better quality at affordable rates (White, 2005). A country which is regarded as the world leader in terms of medical advances and research and technology in the field of medicine, the lack of access to healthcare and primary health care services is one of the most critical and on-going issues faced by it since several decades (Gulliford and Morgan, 2003). An overwhelming majority of the population who are at the bottom of the economic pyramid include those insured by Medicaid, low wage earners as well as those who are uninsured and underinsured. This paper discusses the complex interactions between economics, employment, and provision of healthcare services in the country; the impact of the impact of provision of healthcare to a vulnerable section of the population such as the uninsured; the key implications for nursing in delivering patient care to the uninsured and its impact on the nursing profession. Any disturbance in the economy of a country is likely to result in the usage of and access to medical care, since it directly affects the individual’s ability to pay for such care. Recessions often lead to large scale unemployment, which in turn affect the access to insurance, since most of the healthcare services in the United States are employment-based (Catalano, 2009). Furthermore the willingness of an individual to pay for

The Role of the HR Function Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

The Role of the HR Function - Assignment Example This paper illustrates that some of the main challenges that HR departments are confronted with are the acquisition of new technologies, new skills, incorporating social values, deteriorating conditions of work, etc. The project makes an assessment of the major roles of HR and their importance in the organizations. The basic function of HR in a variety of technical, complex, analytical tasks is to support the internal HR services in the department. The department conducts various duties apart from recruitment and selection, compensation plan administration, classification, affirmative action, position control, benefits administration, and personnel policy administration, labor contract. Besides it is also required to handle such responsibilities as interpretation, processing, and tracking of grievance, labor and employee relations, acting as the chief negotiator for the agency’s contract/s performance appraisal tracking, and also a wide variety of activities. One of the major roles of HR functions is to manage line management. The HR departments have the responsibility of communicating the roles of the line managers. There is also an increasing requirement for the personnel activities to be measured against the costs involved and the value that they add. The HR plays the main role in measuring the balance between the above aspects. Team development and management account for another important function of the human resource departments in organizations. This is done starting from the process of recruitment, selection, management, promotions, staff development etc. Recruitment involves looking for the right candidates according to the requirements of the organization. This includes choosing candidates according to their educational qualifications, setting the job roles and job descriptions etc.

Barriers to Evidence Based Nursing Practice Assignment

Barriers to Evidence Based Nursing Practice - Assignment Example (1998). Interviews were used to conduct this research on a nurse leader and a bedside nurse with a major view of inquiring their perspective on the barriers to the application of evidence-based nursing practices within their clinical settings. Based on quantitative study analysis and design, the barriers identified were inadequate resources, minimal time allocation for the study, inconsistencies, restricted authorities in some situations, limited support in conducting the research, a future two tier nursing practice, lack of work motivation, adaptation culture, institutional resistance to change, and poor responsibility in adopting the evidence-based nursing. These findings were found to be consistent when compared to other related research works (Hannes K. et al, (2007). With a critical look on these barriers, it stood out that one major action of developing clear objective and targeted strategies needed to be taken to solve them all. At our clinical level, we would recommend the development of a problem tree based on the purposeful sampling of nurses in different sections of the clinic to explore the identified barriers, and to orientate possible changes in the management processes of the clinic. This would ensure that both managerial and individual limitations/ barriers are eliminated (Gerrish K., 2007). Hannes K., Vandersmissen J., De Blaeser L., Peeters G., Goedhuys J., Aertgeerts B. (2007). Barriers to evidence-based nursing: a focus group study. J Adv Nurse. 2007 Oct; 60(2):162-71. Pub Med PMID: 17877563. Gerrish K., Ashworth P., Lacey A., Bailey J., Cooke J., Kendall S., McNeilly E. (2007). Factors influencing the development of evidence-based practice: a research tool. J Adv Nurse. 2007 Feb; 57(3):328-38. Pub Med PMID:

Power the Structure of Conflict Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Power the Structure of Conflict - Case Study Example Bringing both the parties at level with each other through communication is the greatest task of mediation aiming at eliminating power abuse. In the given case study, Roland makes use of his power through verbal bullying and abuse with his partner and the subordinates, which makes him less popular among them due to which people working under him are suffering through job dissatisfaction. Power imbalance between the two partners, Roland and Karen, makes them enter into conflicts every now and then and since Karen seems to be in less power, this makes her submissive and more understanding. Roland can deal with the conflicts in a better way by communicating with the workers on friendly terms and making them feel at ease with him so that they share their ideas with him and a better solution is approached. But since, Roland wants to use his power therefore he is less understanding and is imposing his decisions upon the others.

Internal External Balance Essay Example for Free

Internal External Balance Essay When all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail. Bernard Baruch In review of trade policy best suited for our Nation it is time for an overhaul and start developing a more complete toolbox. As Kevin Kaiser so poignantly stated in his article in CNN Money: â€Å"The economists that make the worlds crucial monetary policy decisions are the same economists who authored most textbooks in use. While superficially appealing, their theories lack empirical evidence, are riddled with internal inconsistencies, and are based upon tenuous assumptions. Specifically, their models are built on downward sloping demand curves, upward sloping supply curves, perfect competition, rational consumers, benevolent dictators, and general equilibrium; there is no dynamic analysis, no consideration of disequilibrium, and no role of private sector debt† (Kaiser, 2011). The policy cross as shown to the left indicates that as e increases m decreases, and current account improves. To offset this, an increase in g is required. The EE curve is positively sloped in the (e,g) space. An internal equilibrium is attained when the output is at the full employment level thereby raising the interest rate. Moreover, because the economy is fully employed, real output cannot increased beyond a point. Thus, an increase in inflationary pressure occurs, thereby raising domestic price, which shifts the LM curve to the left. Thus, along the IE curve, government spending and interest rate are directly related. As a Post Keynes-Industrialist, the tendency to lean towards comprehensive human market behaviors and interdependent structural issues makes developing a one-size-fits-all policy, such as the policy cross, for internal and external balance a challenge. This is particularly true when evidence for any one theory to-date has not proven to be exact and reliable. Capitalism is fickle, and doesn’t follow slopes as neatly as theorists would like and the global shocks being felt around the world are keeping the economic status of all countries anything but predictable. Paul Krugman wrote an article for The New York Times that explained, â€Å"at the heart of the profession of economics’ failure has been its emphasis on rigor, rather than relevance—that is, economics had been weakened by the desire for an all-encompassing, intellectually elegant approach that also gave economists a chance to show off their mathematical prowess. He offered two recommendations in addition to again making the case for renewed attention to Keynes: scholarship that questions the efficient-market view of the financial sector, and research that incorporates the realities of finance into macroeconomics† (Krugman, 2009). For the purposes of this paper however, it would be recommended that a floating exchange rate be proposed for the following reason: The challenge of fiscal and monetary policies to keep equilibrium could be comparative to eyeballing mass versus weight of internal and external spending and determining which is more relevant at any given time. While a cleanly floating exchange rate assures external balance, it does not assure internal balance and changes in the rate to achieve external balance may exacerbate and internal imbalance. Government monetary and fiscal policies may be used to address internal imbalances at this point with a floating rate structure. â€Å"The following graph can assist in understanding the impacts of booms and recessions on internal and external balances.†(Johnston, M. 2011). For example, the bottom left-hand shows the effects of exports being less competitive, which reduces the number of exports and induces a current account deficit and lower aggregate demand. Currently, the US has a well-known financial problem with a large trade deficit every year. â€Å"It seems many ignore this issue since our debts tend to be denominated in our domestic currency, the dollar.† (Kling, A. para 6). The most recent news release for second quarter 2012 on the Bureau of Economic Analysis states, â€Å"the US current-account deficit decreased to $117.4 billion (preliminary) in the second quarter from $133.6 billion (revised) in the first quarter. The decrease in the current-account deficit was accounted for by a decrease in the deficit on goods and an increase in the surplus on income.†(Bea.gov, Sept 18, 2012 ). This would indicate a small shift in the left lower quadrant just slightly contracting, but very little overall. However damning the current financial situation is, the floating exchange rate remains the better choice as argued in Global Business Today, â€Å"Under a fixed system, a country’s ability to expand or contract its money supply as it sees fit is limited by the need to maintain exchange rate parity, leading to high interest rates† (Hill, 2011). â€Å"Another reason is the because the real exchange rate fundamentals including terms of trade, import tariffs, technology progress, composition of government expenditures and revenues, real interest rate and capital controls are always in flux† (Wong, C. p. 7). When the exchange rate is flexible, in fiscal expansion either government expenditure increases or tax cuts raises output, but worsens current account balances. Conversely, fiscal contraction improves current account balances, but lowers output. If the economy attempts to attain both internal and external balance it could consider expenditure switching, but alone this will be inadequate. â€Å"For example, if an economy is at the full employment level, i.e., internal balance is already attained, but if it is running current account deficits, policy makers in the economy could devalue its currency so that net exports rise. However, the improvement of current account balances would lead the economy to experience over-heating so that internal balance would disappear. If an economy is experiencing an inflationary gap, or over-heating, while maintaining balanced current account, a revaluation policy may reduce total expenditure back to the full employment level, but lead to current account deficits† (web.pdx.edu, para 5). Therefore, changing how we currently think may be necessary to achieve both internal and external balances. Economics has been referred to the dismal science but as Kaiser states, â€Å"True sciences expand and evolve: genetics, psychology, quantum mechanics, astronomy. Economics defends itself – it is an ideology. What we need is an economic theory that is more relevant to a modern capitalist economy – one that embraces uncertainty and disequilibrium, is grounded upon realistic assumptions, is judged by the accuracy of its predictions, and where debt and money are implicit, important factors.† (CNN Money, 2011). References Hill, H. (2011). Global Business Today. New York: New York McGraw-Hill Kaiser, K. (December 16, 2011) Its time for economic theory to evolve. CNN Money. Retrieved on December 14, 2012 from http://finance.fortune.cnn.com/2011/12/16/its-time-for-economic-theory-to-evolve/ Johnston, M (October 8, 2011). AS and A2 Macroeconomics: Internal and External Balances. Econofix. Retrieved on December 12, 2012 from http://econfix.wordpress.com/2011/10/08/as-and-a2-macroeconomics-internal-and-external-balances/ Kling, A. (2004). The trade balance. Retrieved on December 13, 2012 from http://arnoldkling.com/econ/macro/trade.html Krugman, P (2009). â€Å"How Did Economists Get It So Wrong?† The New York Times, September 2. Retrieved on December 14, 2012 from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/06/magazine/06Economic-t.html News Release: US International Transactions. Retrieved on December 14, 2012 from http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/international/transactions/transnewsrelease.htm Wong, C-H. Adjustment and the Internal-External Balance. Retrieved on December 14, 2012 from http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/content/pdfs/L-1b.pdf World Economy Expenditure Changing Retrieved on December 14, 2012 from http://web.pdx.edu/~ito/Expenditure_changing_switching_RE_-HI.pdf

Duality in Waiting For Godot

Duality in Waiting For Godot Beckett is known to have commented, I had little talent for happiness.- This sentence in itself is absurd, like the most famous drama of Beckett: Waiting for Godot. But what exactly absurdity means? The original or dictionary meaning of absurd is Out of harmony. utterly or obviously senseless, illogical, or untrue; contrary to all reason or common sense; laughably foolish or false.But the word has a different meaning when it is used int he theatre of the absurd. Marking the difference between a good play and an absurd play, Martin Esslin opines: If a good play must have a cleverly constructed story, these have no story or plot to speak of : if a good play is judged by subtlety of characterization and motivation, these are often without recognizable characters and present the audience with almost mechanical puppets; if a good play has to have a fully explained theme, which is neatly exposed and finally solved, these often have neither a beginning nor an end; if a good play is to hold the mirror upto nature and portray the manners and mannerisms of the age in finely observed sketches, these seem often to be reflections of dreams and nightmares if a good play relies on witty repartee and pointed dialogues, these often consist of incoherent babblings. Waiting for Godot is chock-full of pairs. Theres Vladimir and Estragon, the two thieves, the Boy and his brother, Pozzo and Lucky, Cain and Abel, and of course the two acts of the play itself. With these pairs comes the repeated notion of arbitrary, 50/50 chances. One thief is saved and other damned, but for no clear reason. If Vladimir and Estragon try to hang themselves, the bough may or may not break. One man may die, one man may live. Godot may or may not come to save them. In the Bible, Cains sacrifice was rejected and Abels accepted for no discernible reason. Its minor, but Estragons line in Act I: My left lung is very weak [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]. But my right lung is sound as a bell! More pairs, more arbitrary damnation. Even the tone of Waiting for Godot is filled with duality: two person arguments, back-and-forth questions, disagreement-agreement, questions and (often inadequate) answers. The tree is the only distinct piece of the setting, so were pretty sure it matters. Right off the bat youve got the biblical stuff; Jesus was crucified on a cross, but that cross is sometimes referred to as a tree, as in, Jesus was nailed to the tree. That Vladimir and Estragon contemplate hanging themselves from the tree is likely a reference to the crucifixion, but it also parodies the religious significance. If Jesus died for the sins of others, Vladimir and Estragon are dying for nothing. But we can also think of the two men not as Jesus, but rather as the two thieves crucified along with Jesus. This fits quite nicely with gospels tale as Vladimir tells it; one thief is saved and the other damned, so Didi and Gogo are looking at a fifty-fifty chance. The uncertainty that stems from inconsistency between the four gospels is fitting, too, since Vladimir cant be certain if Godot is coming to save either one of them. Furthermore, Vladimir reports that he was told to wait for Godot by the tree. This should be reassuring it means the men are in the right place. As Estragon points out, theyre not sure if this is the right tree. And, come to think of it, they cant even be sure if this is a tree or not. It kind of looks like a shrub. The tree could be the tree of life. So the trees random blooming would suggest that it is something of a tree of life. And, according to the proverb, that means a desire has been fulfilled. Moreover the trees sprouting leaves could be an ironic symbol pointing out that, far from fulfilled desires, hopes have been deferred yet another day much like Vladimirs ironic claim in Act II that things have changed here since yesterday when, clearly, nothing at all has.. While Vladimir and Estragon wait for Godot, they also wait for nightfall. For some reason (again, arbitrary and uncertain), they dont have to wait for him once the night has fallen. The classic interpretation is that night = dark = death. The falling of night is as much a reprieve from daily suffering as death is from the suffering of a lifetime. Theres also the issue of the moon, as its appearance in the sky is the real signal that night has come and the men can stop waiting for Godot. Estragon, in one of his wicked smart moments, comments the moon is pale for weariness [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] of climbing heaven and gazing on the likes of us. Though the man remembers nothing of yesterday, he does in this moment seem to comprehend the endless repetition of his life. And if the moon is weary just from watching, imagine what that says about the predicament of the men themselves. Carrots and turnips are in one sense just a gag reel for Vladimir and Estragons comic bits. But I was interested in their disagreement over the vegetable: Funny, Estragon comments as he munches, the more you eat, the worse it gets. Vladimir quickly disagrees, adding that, for him, its just the opposite. On the one hand, this could be a completely meaningless conversation the point is simply that Vladimir is in disagreement, playing at opposites, adding to the bickering duality between himself and Gogo. On the other hand, the carrot could be about the meaning of life. It could be a hint as to the differences between the way Vladimir and Estragon live their lives. Vladimirs subsequent comment, an addendum to his carrot claim, is that he gets used to the muck as [he goes] along. He resigns himself to banality. Estragon, on the other hand, wearies as time passes much like the weary moon he observes in Act II. When Pozzo later dishes about smoking, he claims that a second pipe is never so sweet [as the first]. But its sweet just the same. This is a third and distinct answer to the carrot question. When Lucky is commanded to dance in Act I, Pozzo reveals that he calls his dance The Net, adding, He thinks hes entangled in a net. You would think a guy tied up on a rope leash would feel confined enough. Of course, the image of Lucky writhing in an imaginary net is a lasting image for the play as a whole, and especially for the plight of Vladimir and Estragon, who, as weve said before, are confined in a prison or perhaps a net of their own imaginations. There seems to be no shortage of inane props in Waiting for Godot, and these three have one thing in common: they are all absurd objects on which the men have developed irrational dependences. Lucky cannot think without his bowler. Pozzo needs his vaporizer to speak. Estragon seems condemned to forever take his boots on and off, as does Vladimir with his hat. This is another great combination of the tragic and the comic; the situation is hilarious for its absurdity, but dismal at the same time. Estragon is repeatedly repelled by smells in Waiting for Godot. Vladimir stinks of garlic, Lucky smells like who knows what, and Pozzo reeks of a fart in Act II. It seems every time Estragon tries to get close to a person, he is repelled by their odor. It looks to us like smells represent one of the barriers to interpersonal relationships. Estragon isnt just repelled by odors hes repelled by the visceral humanity of those around him. Theres something gritty and base about the odor of a human body, and for Estragon its too much to handle. There are several interpretations of Waiting for Godot, the two most well-known are the religious one and the political one. The religious interpretations posit Vladimir and Estragon as humanity waiting for the elusive return of a savior. If this is the basic idea, then this makes Pozzo into the Pope and Lucky into the faithful. The faithful are then viewed as a cipher of God cut short by human intolerance. The twisted tree can alternatively represent either the tree of death, the tree of life, the tree of Judas or the tree of knowledge. Political interpretations also abound. Some reviewers hold that the relationship between Pozzo and Lucky is that of a capitalist to his labor. This Marxist interpretation is understandable given that in the second act Pozzo is blind to what is happening around him and Lucky is mute to protest his treatment. The play has also been understood as an allegory for Franco-German relations. An interesting interpretation argues that Lucky receives his name because he is lucky in the context of the play. Since most of the play is spent trying to find things to do to pass the time, Lucky is lucky because his actions are determined absolutely by Pozzo. Pozzo on the other hand is unlucky because he not only needs to pass his own time but must find things for Lucky to do.

From Spiritual Leader to English Milk Maid: Colonialism and Maasai Women :: Essays Papers

From Spiritual Leader to English Milk Maid: Colonialism and Maasai Women Before Western imposition of the nation "state," Maasai men and women maintained overlapping positions of power and social prestige among varying age groups. For centuries, "there was no clear, gendered distinction between the "domestic" and the "public/political" domains, or among social, economic and political activities" (36). Yet with the new colonial "parameters of male Maasai power" beget from Western social systems, the Maasai embraced "new modes of control and authority, becoming something that might be called "patriarchal" "(16). In this new pastoralist system, ethnic variances were disregarded, capitalistic profit drove foreign-native relations and Maasai women lost the place of honor and authority within Maasai conceptions of being Maasai. Prior to colonial contact, married women were significantly more influential than commonly supposed. In terms of wealth and economy, married women kept a sizeable crop of her own cattle with exclusive rights to milk and byproducts of her herd and "maintained links with neighboring agricultural groups, trading surplus milk, hides, smallstock and even donkeys for the needed grain and food stuffs" (30). Women traditionally "traveled to markets and trading settlements", visited "friends and relatives at neighboring homesteads" (27) and were free to take lovers prior to and after marriage, so long as traditional household duties were not neglected (31). Moreover, women were able to lobby judicial proceedings and mediate relationships between Maasai and God, thus expressing "moral authority" and power (33). However, beginning in 1890, Western colonialism reshaped the Maasai's perception of who they should be. Though the German colonialism was "uneven" and "limited," it weakened the Maasai through disease, and established the practice of "state rule" (37). Conforming the Maasai "to colonial, and then national, agendas of progress", the "assertion and expansion of state power" reordered Maasai lives and livelihoods to suit Western needs (275). Subsequent British rule in the 1900s "expanded" on state authority with tribal relocations and new heads of households, enforcing "neat alignments of ethnic identity with territorial identity" on a mobile and nomadic people. Frustrated Westerners created a "political hierarchy of Africans" to ruled through co-optation (61) and instituted colonial taxes upon the men, disrupting cattle ownership among men and women (69). Even in the 1960s, continuing "a potentially lucrative source of state revenue", foreign organizations spent millions of dollars on the development of Maasai "productivity", yet the programs held no cultural sensitivity and flopped.

faulkner :: essays research papers

The Southern Social Themes of Barn Burning William Faulkner undoubtedly ranks one of the best and most influential writers both in America and in history. Among his various works of art, the most famous ones are those set in his fictional Yoknapatawpha County, which is molded out of his â€Å"native soil.† Despite their Southern setting, these works convey something universally true. As Faulkner often claims, he is just a story-teller, telling about man in conflict, about how he â€Å"endures and prevails.† Before he received due recognition, Faulkner wrote quite a few short stories which he expected would help him improve his economic condition, so that he could write novels at ease. Nevertheless, although he was motivated by economic interests, many of these short stories turned out very prominent. "Barn Burning" is one of Faulkner's most frequently anthologized, though its prose is a bit more ponderous than the garrulous first-person narration of "Emily." Set roughly 30 years after the Civil War, the story focuses on two members of the Snopes family: Ab Snopes, a poor sharecropper who takes out his frustrations against the post-Civil War aristocracy by burning barns, and his adolescent son, "Sarty," who dislikes his father's destructive tendencies and ultimately must choose between family and morality. This powerful coming-of-age story is notable for its conscientious prose styling, in which Faulkner mimics the inward turmoil and questions faced by his principal protagonist, as well as its carefully rendered settings of three historical milieus, each of which has important thematic concerns in the story: the sharecropper's cabin, the planter's mansion, and the town's general store. Faulkner incorporated the basic narrative of the story into his novel The Hamlet, though it is told in vastly different language and tone. Written as it was, at the ebb of the 1930s, a decade of social, economic, and cultural tumult, the decade of the Great Depression, William Faulkner's short story "Barn Burning" may be read and discussed by most of us as just that--a story of the '30s, for "Barn Burning" offers students insights into these years as they were lived by the nation and the South and captured by our artists. This story was first published in June of 1939 in Harper's Magazine and later awarded the 0. Henry Memorial Award for the best short story of the year. Whether read alone, as part of a thematic unit on the Depression era, or as an element of an interdisciplinary course of the Depression '30s, "Barn Burning" can be used to awaken students to the race, class, and economic turmoil of the decade.

The Twilight Saga 4: Breaking Dawn 15. Tick Tock Tick Tock Tick Tock

15. Tick Tock Tick Tock Tick Tock Hey Jake, thought you said you wanted me at dusk. How come you didn't have Leah wake me up before she crashed? ‘Cause I didn't need you. I'm still good. He was already picking up the north half of the circle. Anything? Nope. Nothing but nothing. You did some scouting? He'dcaught the edge of one of my side trips. He headed up the new trail. Yeah – ran a few spokes. You know, just checking. If the Cullens are going to make a hunting trip†¦ Good call. Seth looped back toward the main perimeter. It was easier to run with him than it was to do the same with Leah. Though she was trying – trying hard – there was always an edge to her thoughts. She didn't want to be here. She didn't want to feel the softening toward the vampires that was going on in my head. She didn't want to deal with Seth's cozy friendship with them, a friendship that was only getting stronger. Funny, though, I'd've thought her biggest issue would just be me. We'd always gotten on each other's nerves when we were in Sam's pack. But there was no antagonism toward me now at all, just the Cullens andBella. I wondered why. Maybe it was simply gratitude that I wasn't forcing her to leave. Maybe it was because I understood her hostility better now. Whichever, running with Leah wasn't nearly as bad as I'd expected. Of course, she hadn't eased up that much. The food and clothes Esme had sent for her were all taking a trip downriver right now. Even after I'd eaten my share – not because it smelled nearly irresistible away from the vampire burn, but to set a good example of self-sacrificing tolerance for Leah – she'd refused. The small elk she'd taken down around noon had not totally satisfied her appetite. Did make her mood worse, though. Leah hated eating raw. Maybe we should runa sweep east? Seth suggested. Go deep, see if they're out there waiting. I was thinking about that,I agreed. But let's do it when we're all awake. I don't want to let down our guard. We should do it before the Cullens give it a try, though. Soon. Right. That got me thinking. If the Cullens were able to get out of the immediate area safely, they really ought to keep on going. They probably should have taken off the second we'd come to warn them. They had to be able to afford other digs. And they had friends up north, right? Take Bella and run. It seemed like an obvious answer to their problems. I probably ought to suggest that, but I was afraid they would listen to me. And I didn't wantto haveBella disappear – to never know whether she'd made it or not. No, that was stupid. I wouldtell them togo. It made no sense for them to stay, and it would be better – not less painful, but healthier – for me if Bella left. Easyto say now, when Bella wasn't right there, looking all thrilled to see me and also clinging to life by her fingernails at the same time†¦ Oh, I already asked Edward about that,Seth thought. What? I asked him why they hadn't taken off yet. Gone up to Tanya's place or something. Somewhere too far for Sam to come after them. I had to remind myself that I'd just decided to give the Cullens that exact advice. That it was best. So I shouldn't be mad at Seth for taking the chore out of my hands. Not mad at all. So what did he say? Are they waiting for a window? No. They're not leaving. And that shouldn't sound like good news. Why not? That's just stupid. Not really,Seth said, defensive now. It takes some time to build up the kind of medical access that Carlisle has here. He's got all the stuff he needs to take care of Bella, and the credentials to get more. That's one of the reasons they want to make a hunting run. Carlisle thinks they're going to need more blood for Bella soon. She's using up all the O negative they stored for her. He doesn't like depleting the stockpile. He's going to buy some more. Did you know you can buy blood? If you're a doctor. I wasn't ready to be logical yet. Still seems stupid. They could bring most of it with them, right? And steal what they need wherever they go. Who cares about legal crap when you're the undead? Edward doesn't want to take any risks moving her. She's better than she was. Seriously,Seth agreed. In his head, he was comparing my memories of Bella hooked up to the tubes with the last time he'd seen her as he'd left the house. She'd smiled at him and waved. But she can't move around much, you know. That thing is kicking the hell out of her. I swallowed back the stomach acid in my throat. Yeah, I know. Broke another of her ribs,he told me somberly. My stride faltered, and I staggered a step before I regained my rhythm. Carlisle taped her up again. Just another crack, he said. Then Rosalie said something about how even normal human babies have been known to crack ribs. Edward looked like he was gonna rip her head off. Too bad he didn't Seth was in full report mode now – knowing it was all vitally interesting to me, though I'd never've asked to hear it. Bella's been running a fever off and on today. Just low grade – sweats and then chills. Carlisle's not sure what to make of it – shemightjust be sick. Her immune system can't be in peak form right now. Yeah, I'm sure it's just a coincidence. She's in a good mood, though. She was chatting with Charlie, laughing and all – Charlie!What?! What do you mean, she was talking to Charlie?! Now Seth's pace stuttered; my fury surprised him. Guess he calls every day to talk to her. Sometimes her mom calls, too. Bella sounds so much better now, so she was reassuring him that she was on the mend-On the mend? What the hell are they thinking?! Get Charlie's hopes up just so that he can be destroyed even worse when she dies? I thought they were getting him ready for that! Trying to prepare him! Why would she set him up like this? She might not die,Seth thought quietly. I took deep breath, trying to calm myself. Seth. Even if she pulls through this, she's not doing it human. She knows that, and so do the rest of them. If she doesn't die, she's going to have to do a pretty convincing impersonation of a corpse, kid. Either that, or disappear. I thought they were trying to make this easier on Charlie. Why†¦ ? Think it's Bella's idea. No one said anything, but Edward's face kinda went right along with what you're thinking now. On the same wavelength with the bloodsucker yet again. We ran in silence for a few minutes. I started off along a new line, probing south. Don't get too far. Why? Bella asked me to ask you to stop by. My teeth locked together. Alice wants you, too. She says she's tired of hanging out in the attic like the vampire bat in the belfry. Seth snorted a laugh. was switching off with Edward before. Trying to keep Bella's temperature stable. Cold to hot, as needed. I guess, if you don't want to do it, I could go back – No. I got it,I snapped. Okay.Seth didn't make any more comments. He concentrated very hard on the empty forest. I kept my southern course, searching for anything new. I turned around when I got close to the first signs of habitation. Not near the town yet, but I didn't want to get any wolf rumors going again. We'd been nice and invisible for a long while now. I passed right through the perimeter on my way back, heading for the house. As much as I knew it was a stupid thing to do, I couldn't stop myself. I must be some kind of masochist. There's nothing wrong with you, Jake. This isn't the most normal situation. Shut up, please, Seth. Shutting. I didn't hesitate at the door this time; I just walked through like I owned the place. I figured that would piss Rosalie off, but it was a wasted effort. Neither Rosalie or Bella were anywhere in sight. I looked around wildly, hoping I'd missed them somewhere, my heart squeezing against my ribs in a weird, uncomfortable way. â€Å"She's all right,† Edward whispered. â€Å"Or, the same, I should say.† Edward was on the couch with his face in his hands; he hadn't looked up to speak. Esme was next to him, her arm wrapped tight around his shoulders. â€Å"Hello, Jacob,† she said. â€Å"I'm so glad you came back.† â€Å"Me, too,† Alice said with a deep sigh. She came prancing down the stairs, making a face. Like 1 was late for an appointment. â€Å"Uh, hey,† I said. It felt weird to try to be polite. â€Å"Where's Bella?† â€Å"Bathroom,† Alice told me. â€Å"Mostly fluid diet, you know. Plus, the whole pregnancy thing does that to you, I hear.† â€Å"Ah.† I stood there awkwardly, rocking back and forth on my heels. â€Å"Oh, wonderful,† Rosalie grumbled. I whipped my head around and saw her coming from a hall half-hidden behind the stairway. She had Bella cradled gently in her arms, a harsh sneer on her face for me. â€Å"I knew I smelled something nasty.† And, just like before, Bella's face lit up like a kid's on Christmas morning. Like I'd brought her the greatest gift ever. It was so unfair. â€Å"Jacob,† she breathed. â€Å"You came.† â€Å"Hi, Bells.† Esme and Edward both got up. I watched how carefully Rosalie laid Bella out on the couch. I watched how, despite that, Bella turned white and held her breath – like she was set on not making any noise no matter how much it hurt. Edward brushed his hand across her forehead and then along her neck. He tried to make it look as if he was just sweeping her hair back, but it looked like a doctor's examination to me. â€Å"Are you cold?† he murmured. I'm fine.† â€Å"Bella, you know what Carlisle told you,† Rosalie said. â€Å"Don't downplay anything. It doesn't help us take care of either of you.† â€Å"Okay, I'm a little cold. Edward, can you hand me that blanket?† I rolled my eyes. â€Å"Isn't that sort of the point of me being here?† â€Å"You just walked in,† Bella said. â€Å"After running all day, I'd bet. Put your feet up for a minute. I'll probably warm up again in no time.† I ignored her, going to sit on the floor next the sofa while she was still telling me what to do. At that point, though, I wasn't sure how†¦. She looked pretty brittle, and I was afraid to move her, even to put my arms around her. So I just leaned carefully against her side, letting my arm rest along the length of hers, and held her hand. Then I put my other hand against her face. It was hard to tell if she felt colder than usual. â€Å"Thanks, Jake,† she said, and I felt her shiver once. â€Å"Yeah,† I said. Edward sat on the arm of the sofa by Bella's feet, his eyes always on her face. It was too much to hope, with all the super-hearing in the room, that no one would notice my stomach rumbling. â€Å"Rosalie, why don't you get Jacob something from the kitchen?† Alice said. She was invisible now, sitting quietly behind the back of the sofa. Rosalie stared at the place Alice's voice had come from in disbelief. â€Å"Thanks, anyway, Alice, but I don't think I'd want to eat something Blondie's spit in. I'd bet my system wouldn't take too kindly to venom.† â€Å"Rosalie would never embarrass Esme by displaying such a lack of hospitality.† â€Å"Of course not,† Blondie said in a sugar-sweet voice that I immediately distrusted. She got up and breezed out of the room. Edward sighed. â€Å"You'd tell me if she poisoned it, right?† I asked. â€Å"Yes,† Edward promised. And for some reason I believed him. There was a lot of banging in the kitchen, and – weirdly – the sound of metal protesting as it was abused. Edward sighed again, but smiled just a little, too. Then Rosalie was back before I could think much more about it. With a pleased smirk, she set a silver bowl on the floor next to me. â€Å"Enjoy, mongrel.† It had once probably been a big mixing bowl, but she'd bent the bowl back in on itself until it was shaped almost exactly like a dog dish. I had to be impressed with her quick craftsmanship. And her attention to detail. She'd scratched the word Fido into the side. Excellent handwriting. Because the food looked pretty good – steak, no less, and a big baked potato with all the fixings – I told her, â€Å"Thanks, Blondie.† She snorted. â€Å"Hey, do you know what you call a blonde with a brain?† I asked, and then continued on the same breath, â€Å"a golden retriever.† â€Å"I've heard that one, too,† she said, no longer smiling. â€Å"I'll keep trying,† I promised, and then I dug in. She made a disgusted face and rolled her eyes. Then she sat in one of the armchairs and started flicking through channels on the big TV so fast that there was no way she could really be surfing for something to watch. The food was good, even with the vampire stink in the air. I was getting really used to that. Huh. Not something I'd been wanting to do, exactly†¦ When I was finished – though I was considering licking the bowl, just to give Rosalie something to complain about – I felt Bella's cold fingers pulling softly through my hair. She patted it down against the back of my neck. â€Å"Time for a haircut, huh?† â€Å"You're getting a little shaggy,† she said. â€Å"Maybe – â€Å" â€Å"Let me guess, someone around here used to cut hair in a salon in Paris?† She chuckled. â€Å"Probably.† â€Å"No thanks,† I said before she could really offer. â€Å"I'm good for a few more weeks.† Which made me wonder how long she was good for. I tried to think of a polite way to ask. â€Å"So†¦ urn†¦ what's the, er, date? You know, the due date for the little monster.† She smacked the back of my head with about as much force as a drifting feather, but didn't answer. â€Å"I'm serious,† I told her. â€Å"I want to know how long I'm gonna have to be here.† How long you're gonna be here, I added in my head. I turned to look at her then. Her eyes were thoughtful; the stress line was there between her brows again. â€Å"I don't know,† she murmured. â€Å"Not exactly. Obviously, we're not going with the nine-month model here, and we can't get an ultrasound, so Carlisle is guesstimating from how big I am. Normal people are supposed to be about forty centimeters here† – she ran her finger right down the middle of her bulging stomach – â€Å"when the baby is fully grown. One centimeter for every week. I was thirty this morning, and I've been gaining about two centimeters a day, sometimes more___† Two weeks to a day, the days flying by. Her life speeding by in fast-forward. How many days did that give her, if she was counting to forty? Four? It took me a minute to figure out how to swallow. â€Å"You okay?† she asked. I nodded, not really sure how my voice would come out. Edward's face was turned away from us as he listened to my thoughts, but I could see his reflection in the glass wall. He was the burning man again. Funny how having a deadline made it harder to think about leaving, or having her leave. I was glad Seth'd brought that up, so I knew they were staying here. It would be intolerable, wondering if they were about to go, to take away one or two or three of those four days. My four days. Also funny how, even knowing that it was almost over, the hold she had on me only got harder to break. Almost like it was related to her expanding belly – as if by getting bigger, she was gaining gravitational force. For a minute I tried to look at her from a distance, to separate myself from the pull. I knew it wasn't my imagination that my need for her was stronger than ever. Why was that? Because she was dying? Or knowing that even if she didn't, still – best case scenario – she'd be changing into something else that I wouldn't know or understand? She ran her finger across my cheekbone, and my skin was wet where she touched it. â€Å"It's going to be okay,† she sort of crooned. It didn't matter that the words meant nothing. She said it the way people sang those senseless nursery rhymes to kids. Rock-a-bye, baby. â€Å"Right,† I muttered. She curled against my arm, resting her head on my shoulder. â€Å"I didn't think you would come. Seth said you would, and so did Edward, but I didn't believe them.† â€Å"Why not?† I asked gruffly. â€Å"You're not happy here. But you came anyway.† â€Å"You wanted me here.† â€Å"I know. But you didn't have to come, because it's not fair for me to want you here. I would have understood.† It was quiet for a minute. Edward'd put his face back together. He looked at the TV as Rosalie went on flipping through the channels. She was into the six hundreds. I wondered how long it would take to get back to the beginning. â€Å"Thank you for coming,† Bella whispered. â€Å"Can I ask you something?† I asked. â€Å"Of course.† Edward didn't look like he was paying attention to us at all, but he knew what I was about to ask, so he didn't fool me. â€Å"Why do you want me here? Seth could keep you warm, and he's probably easier to be around, happy little punk. But when walk in the door, you smile like I'm your favorite person in the world.† â€Å"You're one of them.† â€Å"That sucks, you know.† â€Å"Yeah.† She sighed. â€Å"Sorry.† â€Å"Why, though? You didn't answer that.† Edward was looking away again, like he was staring out the windows. His face was blank in the reflection. â€Å"It feels†¦ complete when you're here, Jacob. Like all my family is together. I mean, I guess that's what it's like – I've never had a big family before now. It's nice.† She smiled for half a second. â€Å"But it's just not whole unless you're here.† â€Å"I'll never be part of your family, Bella.† I could have been. I would have been good there. But that was just a distant future that died long before it had a chance to live. â€Å"You've always been a part of my family,† she disagreed. My teeth made a grinding sound. ‘That's a crap answer.† â€Å"What's a good one?† â€Å"How about, ‘Jacob, I get a kick out of your pain.'† I felt her flinch. â€Å"You'd like that better?† she whispered. â€Å"It's easier, at least. I could wrap my head around it. I could deal with it.† I looked back down at her face then, so close to mine. Her eyes were shut and she was frowning. â€Å"We got off track, Jake. Out of balance. You're supposed to be part of my life – I can feel that, and so can you.† She paused for a second without opening her eyes – like she was waiting for me to deny it. When I didn't say anything, she went on. â€Å"But not like this. We did something wrong. No. I did. I did something wrong, and we got off track___† Her voice trailed off, and the frown on her face relaxed until it was just a little pucker at the corner of her lips. I waited for her to pour some more lemon juice into my paper cuts, but then a soft snore came from the back of her throat. â€Å"She's exhausted,† Edward murmured. â€Å"It's been a long day. A hard day. I think she would have gone to sleep earlier, but she was waiting for you.† I didn't look at him. â€Å"Seth said it broke another of her ribs.† â€Å"Yes. It's making it hard for her to breathe.† â€Å"Great.† â€Å"Let me know when she gets hot again.† â€Å"Yeah.† She still had goose bumps on the arm that wasn't touching mine. I'd barely raised my head to look for a blanket when Edward snagged one draped over the arm of the sofa and flung it out so that it settled over her. Occasionally, the mind-reading thing saved time. For example, maybe I wouldn't have to make a big production out of the accusation about what was going on with Charlie. That mess. Edward would just hear exactly how furious – â€Å"Yes,† he agreed. â€Å"It's not a good idea.† â€Å"Then why?† Why was Bella telling her father she was on the mend when it would only make him more miserable? â€Å"She can't bear his anxiety.† â€Å"So it's better – â€Å" â€Å"No. It's not better. But I'm not going to force her to do anything that makes her unhappy now. Whatever happens, this makes her feel better. I'll deal with the rest afterward.† That didn't sound right. Bella wouldn't just shuffle Charlie's pain off to some later date, for someone else to face. Even dying. That wasn't her. If I knew Bella, she had to have some other plan. â€Å"She's very sure she's going to live,† Edward said. â€Å"But not human,† I protested. â€Å"No, not human. But she hopes to see Charlie again, anyway.† Oh, this just got better and better. â€Å"See. Charlie.† I finally looked at him, my eyes bugging. â€Å"Afterwards. See Charlie when she's all sparkly white with the bright red eyes. I'm not a bloodsucker, so maybe I'm missing something, but Charlie seems like kind of a strange choice for her first meal.† Edward sighed. â€Å"She knows she won't be able to be near him for at least a year. She thinks she can stall. Tell Charlie she has to go to a special hospital on the other side of the world. Keep in contact through phone calls___† â€Å"That's insane.† â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"Charlie's not stupid. Even if she doesn't kill him, he's going to notice a difference.† â€Å"She's sort of banking on that.† I continued to stare, waiting for him to explain. â€Å"She wouldn't be aging, of course, so that would set a time limit, even if Charlie accepted whatever excuse she comes up with for the changes.† He smiled faintly. â€Å"Do you remember when you tried to tell her about your transformation? How you made her guess?† My free hand flexed into a fist. â€Å"She told you about that?† â€Å"Yes. She was explaining her†¦ idea. You see, she's not allowed totell Charlie the truth – it would be very dangerous for him. But he's a smart, practical man. She thinks he'll come up with his own explanation. She assumes he'll get it wrong.† Edward snorted. â€Å"After all, we hardly adhere to vampire canon. He'll make some wrong assumption about us, like she did in the beginning, and we'll go along with it. She thinks she'll be able to see him†¦ from time to time.† â€Å"Insane,† I repeated. â€Å"Yes,† he agreed again. It was weak of him to let her get her way on this, just to keep her happy now. It wouldn't turn out well. Which made me think that he probably wasn't expecting her to live to try out her crazy plan. Placating her, so that she could be happy for a little while longer. Like four more days. â€Å"I'll deal with whatever comes,† he whispered, and he turned his face down and away so that I couldn't even read his reflection. â€Å"I won't cause her pain now.† â€Å"Four days?†I asked. He didn't look up. â€Å"Approximately.† â€Å"Then what?† â€Å"What do you mean, exactly?† I thought about what Bella had said. About the thing being wrapped up nice and tight in something strong, something like vampire skin. So how did that work? How did it get out? â€Å"From what little research we've been able to do, it would appear the creatures use their own teeth to escape the womb,† he whispered. I had to pause to swallow back the bile. â€Å"Research?† I asked weakly. â€Å"That's why you haven't seen Jasper and Emmett around. That's what Carlisle is doing now. Trying to decipher ancient stories and myths, as much as we can with what we have to work with here, looking for anything that might help us predict the creature's behavior.† Stories? If there were myths, then†¦ â€Å"Then is this thing not the first of its kind?† Edward asked, anticipating my question. â€Å"Maybe. It's all very sketchy. The myths could easily be the products of fear and imagination. Though .. .† – he hesitated – â€Å"your myths are true, are they not? Perhaps these are, too. They do seem to be localized, linked___† â€Å"How did you find†¦ ?† â€Å"There was a woman we encountered in South America. She'd been raised in the traditions of her people. She'd heard warnings about such creatures, old stories that had been passed down.† â€Å"What were the warnings?† I whispered. â€Å"That the creature must be killed immediately. Before it could gain too much strength.† Just like Sam thought. Was he right? â€Å"Of course, their legends say the same of us. That we must be destroyed. That we are soulless murderers.† Two for two. Edward laughed one hard chuckle. â€Å"What did their stories say about the†¦ mothers?† Agony ripped across his face, and, as I flinched away from his pain, I knew he wasn't going to give me an answer. I doubted he could talk. tt was Rosalie – who'd been so still and quiet since Bella'd fallen asleep that I'd nearly forgotten her – who answered. She made a scornful noise in the back of her throat. â€Å"Of course there were no survivors,† she said. No survivors, blunt and uncaring. â€Å"Giving birth in the middle of a disease-infested swamp with a medicine man smearing sloth spit across your face to drive out the evil spirits was never the safest method. Even the normal births went badly half the time. None of them had what this baby has – caregivers with an idea of what the baby needs, who try to meet those needs. A doctor with a totally unique knowledge of vampire nature. A plan in place to deliver the baby as safely as possible. Venom that will repair anything that goes wrong. The baby will be fine. And those other mothers would probably have survived if they'd had that – if they even existed in the first place. Something I am not convinced of.† She sniffed disdainfully. The baby, the baby. Like that was all that mattered. Bella's life was a minor detail to her – easy to blow off. Edward's face went white as snow. His hands curved into claws. Totally egotistical and indifferent, Rosalie twisted in her chair so that her back was to him. He leaned forward, shifting into a crouch. Allow me,I suggested. He paused, raising one eyebrow. Silently, I lifted my doggy bowl off the floor. Then, with a quick, powerful flip of my wrist, I threw it into the back of Blondie's head so hard that – with an earsplitting bang – it smashed flat before it ricocheted across the room and snapped the round top piece off the thick newel post at the foot of the stairs. Bella twitched but didn't wake up. â€Å"Dumb blonde,† I muttered. Rosalie turned her head slowly, and her eyes were blazing. â€Å"You. Got. Food. In. My. Hair.† That did it. I busted up.I pulled away fromBella so that I wouldn't shake her, and laughed so hard that tears ran down my face. From behind the couch, I heard Alice's tinkling laugh join in. I wondered why Rosalie didn't spring. I sort of expected it. But then I realized that my laughing had woken Bella up, though she'd slept right through the real noise. â€Å"What's so funny?† she mumbled. â€Å"I got food in her hair,† I told her, chortling again. â€Å"I'm not going to forget this, dog,† Rosalie hissed. â€Å"S'not so hard to erase a blonde's memory,† I countered. â€Å"Just blow in her ear.† â€Å"Get some new jokes,† she snapped. â€Å"C'mon, Jake. Leave Rose alo – † Bella broke off mid-sentence and sucked in a sharp breath. In the same second, Edward was leaning over the top of me, ripping the blanket out of the way. She seemed to convulse, her back arching off the sofa. â€Å"He's just,† she panted, â€Å"stretching.† Her lips were white, and she had her teeth locked together like she was trying to hold back a scream. Edward put both hands on either side of her face. â€Å"Carlisle?† he called in a tense, low voice. â€Å"Right here,† the doctor said. I hadn't heard him come in. â€Å"Okay,† Bella said, still breathing hard and shallow. â€Å"Think it's over. Poor kid doesn't have enough room, that's all. He's getting so big.† It was really hard to take, that adoring tone she used to describe the thing that was tearing her up. Especially after Rosalie's callousness. Made me wish I could throw something at Bella, too. She didn't pick up on my mood. â€Å"You know, he reminds me of you, Jake,† she said – affectionate tone – still gasping. â€Å"Do not compare me to that thing,† I spit out through my teeth. â€Å"I just meant your growth spurt,† she said, looking like I'd hurt her feelings. Good. â€Å"You shot right up. I could watch you getting taller by the minute. He's like that, too. Growing so fast.† I bit my tongue to keep from saying what I wanted to say – hard enough that I tasted blood in my mouth. Of course, it would heal before I could swallow. That's what Bella needed. To be strong like me, to be able to heal†¦. She took an easier breath and then relaxed back into the sofa, her body going limp. â€Å"Hmm,† Carlisle murmured. I looked up, and his eyes were on me. â€Å"What?† I demanded. Edward's head leaned to one side as he reflected on whatever was in Carlisle's head. â€Å"You know that I was wondering about the fetus's genetic makeup, Jacob. About his chromosomes.† â€Å"What of it?† â€Å"Well, taking your similarities into consideration – â€Å" â€Å"Similarif/es?† I growled, not appreciating the plural. â€Å"The accelerated growth, and the fact that Alice cannot see either of you.† I felt my face go blank. I'd forgotten about that other one. â€Å"Well, I wonder if that means that we have an answer. If the similarities are gene-deep.† â€Å"Twenty-four pairs,† Edward muttered under his breath. â€Å"You don't know that.† â€Å"No. But it's interesting to speculate,† Carlisle said in a soothing voice. â€Å"Yeah. Just fascinating† Bella's light snore started up again, accenting my sarcasm nicely. They got into it then, quickly taking the genetics conversation to a point where the only words I could understand were the the's and the ands. And my own name, of course. Alice joined in, commenting now and then in her chirpy bird voice. Even though they were talking about me, I didn't try to figure out the conclusions they were drawing. I had other things on my mind, a few facts I was trying to reconcile. Fact one, Bella'd said that the creature was protected by something as strong as vampire skin, something that was too impenetrable for ultrasounds, too tough for needles. Fact two, Rosalie'd said they had a plan to deliver the creature safely. Fact three, Edward'd said that – in myths – other monsters like this one would chew their way out of their own mothers. I shuddered. And that made a sick kind of sense, because, fact four, not many things could cut through something as strong as vampire skin. The half-creature's teeth – according to myth – were strong enough. My teeth were strong enough. And vampire teeth were strong enough. It was hard to miss the obvious, but I sure wished I could. Because I had a pretty good idea exactly how Rosalie planned to get that thing â€Å"safely† out.

Brand Community Analysis

Brand Community Analysis As the development of communication technology and global market, the concept of Brand Community was fist defined as ‘a specialized, non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relationships among admirers of a brand’ by two social scientists, Albert M. Muniz, JR and Thomas C. O’Guinn (2001). This essay will firstly give a brief overview of brand community, and then point out three main characteristics and further discuss these features of brand community based on the article by Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) using the supporters of Manchester United Football Club as an example.Brand community is a customer-customer-brand triad. It reflects on a collection of brand-centric social group stressing the use of brand and the relationship formed by emotion between consumers (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). Furthermore, McAlexander, Schouten and Koenig (2002) have extended this model to the extent that brand communit y is actually a customer-centric network and aim to provide customer special brand-related consumption experience. They have also emphasized the concept of brand experience in a community.Any brand experience comes from the interaction among members, and at the same time customers also construct the meaning of the brand in the process of interaction and experience. Subsequently, by the research in the abandoned Apple Newton, Muniz and Schau (2005) found brand community can be regarded to a kind of religious affiliation. Manchester United Football Club (MUFC) is a famous professional football team founded in 1878 in England. It is the best supported in Europe (Rice, 2009) and probably the most popular football club in the world.According to the article by Cass (2007) from Daily Mail, the number of worldwide MUFC supporters was closed to 333 million in 2007. In this case, I assume the fans of MUFC all are the members of the club community and they principally consume match tickets and club-related products. Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) raised 3 basic characteristics for brand community, like other traditional communities, which respectively were a shared consciousness, rituals and traditions and a sense of moral responsibility. The most important shared consciousness is group awareness.It means there is an implicit relationship between community members and members can be distinct from others. Rituals and traditions is a vital social process. Brand and the meaning of brand community with their history, culture and consciousness can be duplicated and passed on through ritual and traditions. Moral responsibility indicates that community members are responsible for each other. These 3 characteristics show the nature of brand community. For the sense of consciousness, members feel a great relation toward one another is more important than the connection to the brand (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001).That is why two main organisations for MUFC supporters in the UK, Independent Manchester United Supporters Association (IMUSA) and Manchester United Supporters Trust (MUST), were established to let like-minded people join together and formed local communities. IMUSA has even set up a committee to better represent the interest and voice of supports. Supporters from all around the world can also just easily use web-based communication tools such as Twitter, Facebook, and forums like MUFC fansforum (http://community. manutd. com/forums/) to share updated news and maintain connections.On the other hand, members, ‘also set them apart from others and makes them similar to one another’ Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) claimed, especially try to distinct them from the main competitive brand in the market. This regards to oppositional brand loyalty. In this MUFC case, the oppositional brand is its main rivalry in the Premier league located in the same city – Manchester City Football Club (MCFC). Fans from MUFC always differentiate them against MCFC supporters. Members usually said MCFC is built by money, just an upstart and a noisy neighbour.Most of the community members despise this kind of team because they think MUFC has the glories that MCFC lack of and embodies the passion and excitement of the world's most popular sport (Hill and Vincent, 2006). Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) indicated rituals and traditions focus on sharing consumption experience with the brand. Supporters sing several specific songs during the match regarding to different circumstances to encourage and cheer the team. Those songs have already become a kind of spiritual symbol of the MUFC brand, and therefore will be passed on each time they are sung in matches.Celebrating the history of the brand is crucial for maintaining community and reproducing culture (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). For the MUFC community, the most vital history is the trophies they gained. After MUFC won their 19th English top league title last season, the Barclay s Premiership Trophy Cup was being demonstrated around the world for the whole summer in 2011. This tour is not only presenting the precious trophy cup to supporters but also a promotion of the great history of MUFC to further raise reputation and attract new members.Sharing brand stories is another important means of maintaining and creating community (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). MUFC fans always mention either face to face or on internet about the classic victory of the champion league final in 1999 in Munich. This can be related to viral marketing by which positive image and consciousness of the brand and community can be delivered through word of mouth or improved by the internet network effects. ‘The sense of moral responsibility is what produces collective action and contributes to group cohesion’ Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) said.There are two traditional shared missions: intergrading and retaining members and assisting members in the proper use of the br and. Firstly, it is crucial to retain existing members and obtain new ones. The fundamental way for MUFC to save and fascinate supporters is to keep winning. Getting consistent good record and reputation will really help the brand to attract and retain members. MUFC also gives discount to the existing official members to renew their membership and buy season tickets in the following year. Thus members can gain benefit from their loyalty.Secondly, moral responsibility also provides assistant normally in problem solving and shares brand-related information. For instance, members share transport information in away games on fansforum. In conclusion, the notion of brand community has been extended in recent years and become a usual marketing phenomenon. The three key characteristics represent the essence of brand community and each of them has its own manifestation. Due to the improvement of communication way, members of brand community are more convenient to communicate and the brand i s also easier to build connection with customers and create brand communities.Looking to the future, I believe brand community will become a crucial and staple marketing strategy. Reference: Cass, Bob (2007). â€Å"United moving down south as fanbase reaches 333 million†. Daily Mail (London: Associated Newspapers); 15 December 2007. Manchester United official fansforum: http://community. manutd. com/forums/t/84281. aspx Manchester United Membership benefit: http://www. manutd. com/en/One-United/Member-Benefits. aspx McAlexander, J H, Schouten , J W, and Koenig , H F. Building brand community[J ] . Journal of Marketing; Jan 2002; 66, 1; ABI/INFORM Global p. 8 Muniz Albert M. Jr. and Thomas C. O’Guinn (2001), Brand Community, Journal of Consumer Research; March 2001; 27, 4; ABI/INFORM Global p. 412 Muniz Albert M. Jr. and Schau, H J. (2005), Religiosity in the Abandoned Apple Newton Brand Community, Journal of Consumer Research; Mar 2005; 31, 4; ABI/INFORM Global p. 737 Rice, Simon (6 November 2009). â€Å"Manchester United top of the 25 best supported clubs in Europe†. The Independent (London: Independent Print). Vincent, John, Hill, John S. (2006) Globalisation and sports branding: the case of Manchester United.

Great Gatsby: American Dream

As time flows everlastingly on, the dreams which man builds Its self upon are prone to change. Throughout American history the American dream has changed from being one which inspired and fed the hopes of people all over the country, to the twenties' mangled interpretation of it, where everything revolved around money and status. This theme is expressed in multiple characters and more specifically Gatsby who is a prime example of such corruption.The untimely demise of Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgerald The Great Gatsby, signals the unraveling of the American dream. In the beginning of the novel Gatsby dream is pure in its initial form. Starting out his dream is Just like any other's, one with glory and a better life for himself as he believed he deserved. Eventually he gain his dream of riches, this being reflected In his new life In the West Egg with his mansion being brand new apart from the Ivy coating It possesses along with his vast amount of lawn area. Fitzgerald 9) Gatsby pays spec ial attention to his lawn also, cultivating It as he did with his rise to fortune and controlling most details apart from one section allowed to grow wild, which was a Indo to see the inner turmoil of Gatsby. This anxiety within is helped by the fact that one of Gatsby driving notions in the book was to When the realization hits that Gatsby dream is becoming a false sense of its self, the reader is forced to look deeper into the character of Gatsby and who he really is.This leads to the discovery of Gatsby continually living in the past, often times fabricating a story to make himself seem more outgoing and distanced from what he truly is, leaving the reader wondering â€Å"if there wasn't something a little sinister about him after all. (Fitzgerald 69) These tendencies led Gatsby to boast about what materialistic Items he has today and what he can give himself and others. Such as when Gatsby Is feeling anxious about Daisy coming over for tea he mows his own yard for a sense of con trol then extends his control to also â€Å"[send someone] over to cut [Nick's] grass. (Fitzgerald 88) Eventually, Gatsby possessive feelings lead to the corruption of his dream of winning over Daisy because he begins to want to possess her as well. The final turning point In the novel relating to Gatsby distress with his dream is he climaxing fight between Tom and himself over Daisy. Gatsby being so corrupted now, that he yells and forces his supposed true love to tell her husband she never loved him. (Fitzgerald 139) In the end this actually pushes Daisy away more and back into the arms of her husband, Tom.Within Fitzgerald novel the American dream was once seen as a budding new concept but In the end failed to bloom due to the circumstances in which the characters, specifically Gatsby, took to find their route to their believed happiness. Great Gatsby: American Dream By Instrumentalists As time flows everlastingly on, the dreams which man builds its self upon are In the beginnin g of the novel Gatsby dream is pure in its initial form. Starting believed he deserved.Eventually he gain his dream of riches, this being reflected in his new life in the West Egg with his mansion being brand new apart from the coating it possesses along with his vast amount of lawn area. (Fitzgerald 9) Gatsby pays special attention to his lawn also, cultivating it as he did with his rise to fortune hat one of Gatsby driving notions in the book was to materialistic items he has today and what he can give himself and others.Such as when Gatsby is feeling anxious about Daisy coming over for tea he mows his own cut [Nicks] grass. † (Fitzgerald 88) Eventually, Gatsby possessive feelings lead to the The final turning point in the novel relating to Gatsby distress with his dream is the climaxing fight between Tom and himself over Daisy. Gatsby being so corrupted concept but in the end failed to bloom due to the circumstances in which the

Consumer Behavior Study Notes

MKTG 4150 STUDY NOTES Chapter 1: An Introduction to Consumer Behaviour What is Consumer Behaviour? Consumer Behaviour: the study of the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy needs and desires. Consumer behaviour is a process Buyer behaviour: the interaction between consumers and producers at the time of purchase. * Exchange (two or more organizations or people give and receive something of value) is an integral part of marketing Consumer behaviour involves many different actors Purchaser and the user of a product may not necessarily be the same person * Another person can also act as an influencer when providing recommendations for or against certain products without actually buying or using them Segmenting Consumers Market Segmentation: process of identifying groups of consumers who are similar to one another in one or more ways and devising marketing strategies that appeal to one or mo re groups Demographics: statistics that measure observable aspects of a population (i. e. birth rate, age distribution, income, etc. * Changes and trends revealed in demographic studies are of great interest to marketers since it can be used to locate and predict the sizes of markets * Markets can usually be segmented by age, gender, family structure, social class and income, ethnicity, geography, and lifestyles Chapter 2: Perception Exposure Exposure: the degree to which people notice a stimulus that is within range of their sensory receptors Sensory Thresholds Psychophysics: the science that focuses on how the physical environment is integrated into our personal, subjective world The absolute thresholdAbsolute threshold: the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected on a sensory channel The differential threshold Differential threshold: the ability of a sensory system to detect changes in a stimulus or differences between the two stimuli Just noticeable difference (JND): the minimum change in a stimulus that can be detected * The ability to detect a difference between two stimuli is the relative difference between the decibel level of the message and its surroundings Weber’s Law The stronger the initial stimulus, the greater its change must be for it to be noticed K= ? II where:K = the constant increase or decrease necessary for the stimulus to be noticed (this varies across the senses) ?I = the minimal change in intensity of the stimulus required to be just noticeable to the person (JND) I = the intensity of the stimulus before the change occurs * Retailers generally use a markdown rule of at least 20% to make an impact on shoppers Subliminal Perception * Another word for â€Å"threshold† is limen and stimuli that fall below the limen are called subliminal Subliminal perception: occurs when the stimulus is below the level of the consumer’s awareness Subliminal techniquesEmbeds: tiny figures that are inserted into magazine adver tising by using high speed photography or airbrushing (supposedly exert strong but unconscious influences on innocent readers) Does subliminal perception work? Evaluating the evidence Factors why subliminal messages do not work: 1. There are wide individual differences in threshold levels. For a subliminal message to affect all individuals, it must be able to target ALL thresholds (which is impossible) 2. Advertisers cannot control the consumer’s position and distance from the screen (not everyone will have the same amount of exposure) 3.Consumers must pay absolute attention to the stimulus (not everyone does, most people are distracted) 4. Even if there is an effect, it only operates on a general level (can’t get a specific message out) Attention Attention: the extent in which the brain’s processing activity is devoted to a particular stimulus Multitask: the ability to process information from more than one medium at a time Perceptual sensitivity: process in wh ich people attend to only a small portion of the stimuli to which they are exposed Personal selection factorsPerceptual vigilance: consumers are more likely to be aware of stimuli that relate to their current needs (i. e. if you are hungry†¦ you will notice more food signs) Perceptual defence: people see what they want to see – and don’t see what they don’t want to see. If a stimulus is threatening to us in some way, we may not process it or we may distort its meaning so that it is more acceptable (i. e. smokers ignoring the warning on the cigarette package) Adaptation: the degree to which consumers continue to notice a stimulus over time (the more exposed to are, the less sensitive you are to it)Factors leading to adaptation: * Intensity (less intense stimuli habituate because they have less of a sensory impact) * Duration (stimuli that require lengthy exposure to be processed tend to habituate because they require a long attention span) * Discrimination ( simple stimuli tend to habituate because they do not require attention to detail) * Exposure (frequently encountered stimuli tend to habituate as the rate of exposure increases) * Relevance (stimuli that are irrelevant or unimportant will habituate because they fail to attract attention)Stimulus selection factors Factors that allow stimuli to be noticed: * Size * Colour * Position * Novelty (stimuli that appear in unexpected ways or places tend to grab attention) Chapter 3: Learning & Memory Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience. Incidental learning: unintentional acquisition of knowledge. Behavioural Learning Theories Behavioral Learning Theories: assume learning takes place because of responses to external events. Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning: when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time this 2nd stimulus (UCS) causes a similar respons e because it is associated with the first stimulus (CS). Unconditional stimulus (UCS): a stimulus naturally capable of causing a response (i. e. flavouring) Conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that causes a response because of a learned association (i. e. bell) Conditioned response (CR): a new or modified response elicited by a stimulus after conditioning (i. . drool) Repetition * Repeated exposures increase the strength of stimulus-response associations and prevent the decay of these associations in memory * Most effective repetition strategy seems to be a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media that are more or less involving * Lack of association can be due to extinction (when the effects of a prior conditioning are reduced and finally disappear) Advertising wearout: repeated similar advertisements will lead to consumers tuning outStimulus generalization Stimulus Generalization: tendency of stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar conditioned responses Ma sked branding: strategy used to deliberately hide a product’s true origin Applications: * Family branding (capitalize on the repetition of a company name) * Product line extensions (related products are added to an established brand) * Licensing (well-known names are rented by others) * Look-alike packaging (distinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a particular brand)Stimulus discrimination Stimulus Discrimination: stimulus similar to CS is not followed by a UCS -> causes weakened reactions Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning: known as operant conditioning, individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoids negative ones. There are 4 types: positive/negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction Shaping: process of rewarding intermediate actions (i. e. customers are rewarded with discounts in hopes of them coming for a second visit) 1.Positive Reinforcement: rewarding, response is strengthened and appropriate behavior learned. RECEIVES A REACTION AFTER DOING SOMETHING, SIMILAR TO PUNISHMENT. (i. e. getting a cookie for every A+) 2. Negative Reinforcement: the avoidance of a negative outcome by doing said behavior, NOTHING IS RECEIVED AFTER DOING SOMETHING. This is different from punishment, which doesn’t use avoidance to learn. (i. e. getting compliments from wearing nice perfume) 3. Punishment: a response is followed by unpleasant events. RECEIVES AN UNPLEASANT REACTION. (i. e. lap on the hand for eating without utensils) 4. Extinction: removal of positive event weakens responses, which are no longer followed by positive outcome. Consumers learn that responses no longer produce positive outcome. (i. e. woman no longer receives compliments on her perfume) Key for marketers is determining the most effective reinforcement schedule (amount of effort and resources they must devote to rewarding consumers to condition desired behaviours): * Fixed-Interval Reinforcement: A reward is made after a specified time period has elapsed. i. e. mouse hitting a button for food that will only come in intervals of 2 minutes, they'll realize that and only begin to hit the button as every 2 min. mark looms but will not do anything right after that mark has passed. textbook uses an example of holiday sales season * Variable-Interval Reinforcement: Time before reinforcement varies around some average but not specified. i. e. mystery store check ups by management, induces staff to always maintain a high-level of service as opposed to only when â€Å"check up† periods loom * Fixed-ratio Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed # of responses. . e. royalty programs, getting a prize for hitting a button 10x * Variable-ratio Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses, but he/she does not know how many are required. Produces very high and steady rates, behavior is very difficult to distinguish. i. e. slot machines, you know you'll win eventua lly, just don’t know exactly how many tries Frequency Marketing: reinforces behavior of regular purchasers by giving prizes in line with amount purchased. i. e. royalty programs, frequent flyer programs. is building a database for refining product mixes, marketing strategies, tailoring communications – makes retention programs more effective, product launches/redesigns more successful, blunders prevented. Cognitive Learning Theory Cognitive Learning Theory: contrasting behavioral theories of learning, this focuses more on internal mental processes, i. e. creativity and insight. Views people as problem solvers and we actively use info to master the environment. Is Learning Conscious or Not? Mindlessness: the ability to process information in an automatic/passive manner * Argument as to whether or not learning is conscious.There are arguments that some people do things mindlessly and rely on their â€Å"adaptive unconsciousness† Observational Learning Observationa l Learning: occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors; learning vicariously rather than directly; AKA Modeling Lesson: marketers can show consumer a model + reinforcement without having to directly reward/punish the consumer to influence behavior The Role of Memory in Learning Memory: process of acquiring information and storing it over time for future availability The way info is encoded is important, if data can be associated with other info in memory already, better chance of new data being retained Sensory Meaning: a stimulus may be interpreted in terms of the senses it evokes, such as colour or shape Semantic Meaning: symbolic associations, i. e. rich people drink champagne Episodic memories: memories that relate to events that are personally relevant. + motivation to retain these memories Flashbulb Memories: memories that are triggered by a stimulus, i. e. (wedding) song that reminds them of their wedding Memory Systems 3 Types of Memory Systems: 1. Sensory Memory: permits storage of info received from our senses – very temporary, i. e. the smell of a bakery when we walk by. If info warrants further investigation, it passes through the attentional gate and xferred to STM. a. Capacity: High b. Duration: < 1 second (vision), few seconds (hearing) 2. Short-Term Memory/working memory: stores info for limited time, capacity is limited. Holds info that we are currently processing c.Capacity: Limited d. Duration: < 20 seconds e. Chunking: combining small pieces into larger pieces to store info 3. Long-Term Memory: a system that allows for long-term retaining of info f. Requires elaborative rehearsal: thinking about meaning of stimulus and relating to other information in memory Storing Information in Memory Activation Models of Memory: depending on nature of processing task, different levels of processing occur that activate some aspects of memory rather than others, +effort, +likely of LT M storage Associative networksAssociative Network/Knowledge Structures: a spiderweb of links containing info for a set of concepts (brands, stores, manufacturers), a storage unit * Info are placed into nodes, connected by associative links. Pieces of info seen similarly are chunked in some abstract form Hierarchical Processing Model: info is processed bottom-up, begins basic then increases to complex processing, if it fails to evoke further processing, info is terminated and capacity allocated elsewhere Evoked Set: a list of recallable information pertaining to a questioned category (i. . perfume). Implication: position itself in the right categories by providing cues (luxury for ex. ) Spreading activation Spreading Activation: as one node is activated, associated nodes are as well through links. = recalling competition/relevant attributes of brand, such as * brand-specific – claims of brand * ad-specific – claims of ad * brand identification * product category  œ how product works, where to be used, experiences with it * evaluative reactions – â€Å"that looks like fun† Levels of knowledgeLevels of Knowledge: Meaning Concepts > Proposition > Schema Script (schema): sequence of procedures expected from an individual Factors influencing forgetting Interference: stimulus-response associations will be forgotten if Retroactive: learning new responses to same/similar stimuli Proactive: prevent new learning as a result of past learning Chapter 4: Motivation and Values The Motivational Process Motivation: processes that cause behavior, occurs when need is aroused and consumer wants to satisfy it Utilitarian: desire to achieve some functional/practical benefit. i. e. cquiring a pair of durable running shoes Hedonic: experiential need involving emotional responses/fantasies. i. e. a special pair of running shoes for triathlon Goal: the desired end state Drive: the difference between a consumer's present and desired state creates tensio n. The magnitude of this tension determines the urgency of the consumer to reduce this tension. That degree of arousal is drive Want: a manifestation of a need (basic needs such as hunger); particular form of consumption to satisfy a need (such as eating hamburgers or hotdogs or chicken wings or caviar to satisfy hunger) Motivational Strength degree to which a person is willing to expend energy to reach a goal as opposed to another reflects his/her underlying motivation to attain that goal Drive Theory Drive Theory: biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal (stomach growling). We are motivated to reduce tension * marketing: tension = unpleasant state – desired state :. achieve balance = homeostasis Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory: behavior is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes, positive incentives. It is a cognitive theory rather than biological Types of Needs think Maslow's hierarchy of needs Biogenic: elements necessary to ma intain life (water, air, shelter) Psychogenic: culturally related, as belonging to groups, having status, power, affiliation Motivational Conflicts Valence: a goal can be either positive or negative Approach-approach conflict * choice between two desirable alternatives i. e. go home for holidays to see family or ski with friends Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: when picking between two products and one is selected, inherently you'll lose on the benefits of the other and gain the negatives of the one chosen.People will start to rationalize their purchase, as a marketer, you can aid this conflict by bundling several benefits in your communications to help Approach-avoidance conflict * desire a goal but wish to avoid it as well i. e. want a goose to look cool, don't want to be labeled Canada douche, bag of chips * marketing implication: overcome guilt by convincing luxury is worth it, remove the negative aspects (fake fur) Avoidance-avoidance conflict * choice between two undesirable al ternatives i. e. throw + money at old car vs. buying a new one marketing implication: help them realize the unforeseen options of one option Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Consumer Involvement Involvement: a person's perceived relevance of the object based on their inherent needs, values and interests. object = brand, product, advertisement or purchase situation Level of Involvement: * can range from simple processing to elaboration (info is related to pre-existing knowledge systems) * a continuum * low end = inertia (decisions = habit because consumer lacks motivation to consider alt) * high end will find passionate intensity for people objects that carry great meaning Flow state: when consumers are truly involved with a product, ad, or website Characterized by: * sense of playfulness * feeling of control * concentration/highly focused attention * mental enjoyment of activity for its own sake * distorted sense of time * match between challenge at hand and one's skills * Another view is the type of involvement: cognitive or affective (rational/emotional) Cult products Cult Products: commands fierce loyalty, devotion and worship by consumers who are highly involved with brand i. e. Apple fanboys The Many Faces of InvolvementProduct involvement Product Involvement: a consumer's level of interest in a particular product. It can increase by having consumers involved in designing/personalizing. Mass customization: customization on mass production prices i. e. t-shirts, Dell computers Message-response involvement Message-Response Involvement: level of interest within a medium of communication i. e. tv = low, print ad = higher (can pause and reflect) Tactic: spectacles or performances, where message is also entertainment Marketing performances: turn public places into advertising stages, such as flash mobs. x. Sony BMG hired a group of passengers to burst into Thriller dance to promote MJ's 25th anniversary of Thriller album Interactive mobile marketing: particip ation in real-time promotional campaigns through cell phones Purchase situation involvement Purchase Situation Involvement: differences that may occur when buying the same object in different contexts i. e. when trying to impress someone you may buy a nice brand to reflect good taste, but if buying for your hated cousin, you may buy something shit because you don't care ValuesValues: a belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite. a function of individual, social and cultural forces Core Values Value System: a culture's ranking of universal values, such as health, wisdom, or world peace Socialization Agents: institutions/people that teach us beliefs, like parents, teachers or friends Enculturation: process of learning beliefs and behaviors endorsed by one's own culture Acculturation: learning of another's culture How Values Link to Consumer Behaviour * Cultural values (i. e. security or happiness) * Consumption-specific values (i. . convenient shopping or prompt service) * Product-specfic values (i. e. ease of use or durability) Hofstede’s cultural dimensions Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions: scores a country based on its standing of 5 dimensions so users can compare/contrast values * Power distance – extent of expectations and acceptance of unequal power distribution by less powerful members of organizations/institutions (like a family) * individualism – degree to which an individuals are integrated into groups * masculinity – distribution of roles between genders uncertainty avoidance – society's tolerance with uncertainty & ambiguity * long-term orientation – values of; long term = thrift/perseverance; short term = tradition, fulfilling social obligations, protecting one's â€Å"face† The Rokeach value survey Rokeach Value Suvery: set of terminal values (end states) and instrumental values (actions required to achieve terminal values) i. e. American's love for freedom (freedom to bear arms, expressi on, etc. due in large to history of wars for freedom, Canadians love equality The list of values (LOV) scale List of Values (LOV) Scale: developed to isolate values w/ more direct-marketing applications. Identifies nine consumer segments based on values The means-end chain model Means-End Chain Model: products are valued as a means to an end (they have abstract value beyond its bare product state) Laddering: consumers â€Å"climb† a ladder of abstraction that connects functional product attributes to desired end states i. . diamond ring for wedding = size of paycheque = size of love = size of self-worth Means-End Conceptualization of the Components of Advertising Strategy (MECCAS): 1st map relationship of product to terminal values, then employ: * message elements – specific attributes/features to be depicted * consumer benefits – + consequences of usage of product * executional framework – overall style/tone of ad leverage point – the way message will link terminal value with features * driving force – end value upon which advertising focuses on Syndicated Surveys Syndicated Surveys: large-scale, syndicated surveys to track changes in values Voluntary Simplifiers: believe once basic material needs are met, + income adds no value Conscientious consumerism: a new core value? Conscientious Consumerism: a value related directly to consumerism (ex. green) LOHAS: lifestyles of health and sustainabilityThe carbon footprint and offsets Carbon footprint: measures (in units of carbon dioxide) the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases they produce Primary footprint: measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels Secondary footprint: measure of the indirect emissions of CO2 from the whole life cycle of products we use Materialism: importance of which people attach to worldly possessions Chapter 5: The SelfPerspectives on the Self Self-Concept Self-Conce pt: beliefs a person holds about his attributes and they evaluate these qualities Self-esteem Self-esteem: the positivity of your attitude toward yourself Social Comparison: a process where person evaluates themselves by comparing to others/media images; a basic human motive * High Self Esteem = takes more risks, expect success, *accepted socially, center of attention * Low = avoids risks, embarrassment, failures, or rejection Real & Ideal SelvesIdeal Self: conception of how they’d want themselves to be Actual Self: more realistic appraisal of qualities we do/don’t have * Purchase products in line with our qualities and others to help us attain our ideal self Impression Management: a process of managing how others think of us Multiple Selves Role Identities: different roles, such as husband, father, boss, student, etc. Virtual identity Virtual Identity: fictional depictions in a real-time, interactive virtual world (WOW) Computer-Mediated Environments (CME): virtual ro le-playing worlds Symbolic interactionismSymbolic Interactionism: relations with others play large part in forming â€Å"the self† * Who am I in this situation? And what do others think I am? * Pattern behavior on the perceived expectations, self-fulfilling prophecy * By acting the way we assume others expect us to act, we conform to those perceptions^ The looking glass self Looking-Glass Self: imagining the reactions of others towards us * Reflexive evaluation occurs when someone attempts to define the self; â€Å"bouncing† signals off others and trying to project the impression they have of us Self-Consciousness High Self-Monitors are more likely to evaluate products in terms of public impressions Consumption and Self-Concept Products that Shape the Self: You are What You Consume Symbolic Self-Completion Theory: predicts that people with incomplete self-definition tend to complete this identity by acquiring and displaying symbols associated with it (i. e. adolescent boys purchase macho products to complete their masculinity) * Prisons remove personal objects to reduce personal identity and create group identity * Burglary victims feel alienation, depression, or feeling â€Å"violated†Self/Product Congruence Self-Image Congruence Models: predicts that products will be chosen if their attributes match some aspect of the self * Ideal self more relevant for highly expressive social products like perfume * Actual self more relevant for everyday, functional products The Extended Self The Extended Self: Props or settings (external objects) considered to be a part of us i. e. my computer is an extension of myself, it represents me 4 levels of the extended self: Individual Level: Personal possessions, such as jewelry, cars, clothing * Family Level: A consumer's residence and furnishings. House = symbolic body of family * Community Level: Neighbourhood or town of origin * Group Level: Attachment to social groups, such as landmarks, monuments, spor ts teams Gender Roles Gender Differences in Socialization Agentic Goals: stresses self-assertion and mastery; pertains mostly to males Communal Goals: affiliation and fostering of harmonious relationships; females * Every society creates a set of expectations of behaviour for men/women.Starts early with stories * Biological gender =/= sex typed traits, characteristics stereotypically associated with a gender * Masculinity and femininity are NOT biological characteristics; culturally determined Sex-Typed Products: products that take on mascu/feminine attributes Androgyny: mascu/femininity are not opposites (duality); can possess both at the same time * like Korean doods * *guys typically influenced by overall theme of message, girls = specific pieces of info Chapter 6: Personality and Lifestyles Personality Personality: person's unique psychological makeup + how it consistently influences responses to environmentFreudian Systems Freudian Systems: consists of 3 â€Å"systems† I d: entirely oriented toward immediate gratification – â€Å"party animal† * Pleasure Principle: behaviour = desire to max pleasure and avoid pain Superego: counterweight to id. The â€Å"conscience†, internalizes societal norms and prevents id from seeking selfish gratification Ego: system that mediates id and superego * Finds ways to gratify id that is socially acceptable (reality principle); unconscious * Marketing Implication: consumers cannot tell us motivation as it may be unconscious * Product represents socially unacceptable, true id goal.By purchasing, live vicariously through it Trait Theory Trait Theory: identifiable characteristics that define a person * consumption differences between idiocentrics (individualist) vs. allocentrics (collective) * Contentment: idios are more satisfied with the way their life is * Health Consciousness: Allos avoid poor food choices * Food Preparation: Allo's spend more time preparing meals * Workacholics: Idios more like ly to say they work harder and stay later for work * Travel and Entertainment: idios interested in other cultures, travelling, movies, libraries Problems with trait theory in consumer research Scales for measurement are not valid/reliable * Tests are developed for specific populations then adopted to general population ultimately how individual decisions add up to society’s well-being * Consumer Confidence: optimism/pessimism of economic future Social Class: * Standing in society * Pecking Order: social hierarchy determines in ranking, the access to resources such as, education, housing, and consumer goods * People belonging in the same class share roughly the same occupations, lead similar lifestyles by virtue of income, tend to socialize and share many ideas and values regarding lifestyle. Homogamy: tendency to marry someone of same social standing * Social Stratification: process in which social system distributes scarce resources unequally amongst social classes in a rela tively permanent manner * Reputation Economy: â€Å"currency† people earn when they post comments online and others recommend their comments * Ascribed Status vs Achieved Status: those who were born with it vs. those who earned it Blurring Social Classes * increasingly harder to link brands/stores to specific class, i. e. affordable luxuries†, university kids who splurge on clothing (Burberry, etc. ) but eat KD * Mass Class: those with purchasing power that allows for high quality goods, except for big ticket items such as cars, American colleges, luxury homes (Zara, H&M) Components of Social Class * Occupational Prestige: worth derived from what they do for a living (i. e. white vs blue collar) * Income * Social Class better predictor of purchases with symbolic aspects and low-moderate price * Income better predictor of major expenditures with no symbolic meaning (major appliances)How Social Class affects purchase decisions * Attitudes towards luxury (consumers): * Fun ctional: buys things that will last/enduring value. Conducts extensive research & logical decision making * Reward: typically younger than first group and older than 3rd group. A way of saying â€Å"I've made it† * Indulgence: smallest group. owning luxury items is to be lavish and self-indulgent – to express individuality and make others take notice. ery emotional approach * Old Money: old money families distinguish themselves NOT ON WEALTH, but on history of public service, philanthropy, and tangible markers (Ivey Business School) * Taste Cultures: differentiates in terms of aesthetic and intellectual preferences * it's like saying upper/upper-middle likely to go to museums, middle like camping and fishing. It's like saying that you're less sophisticated * Codes: ways consumers interpret and express meanings restricted codes: focus on content of objects, not relationships amongst objects * elaborated: more complex and depend on a more sophisticated worldview (p. 417) * Pierre Bourdieu concluded that taste is a status-marking force, or habitus * social capital: organizational affiliations and networks (connections) * cultural capital: set of distinctive and socially rare tastes and practices. basically the culture of the rich that allows them to stay within the upper echelon of society because they keep passing it downStatus Symbols * we purchase products not to enjoy them, but to let others know that we can afford them * isn't the same across all cultures. Bulky phones are more â€Å"luxurious† than slim sleek phones compared with the Western world. * invidious distinction: to inspire envy in others through display of wealth/power (reason for consumption) * conspicuous consumption: people's desire to provide prominent, visible evidence of their ability to afford luxury goods * parody consumption: to seek status by mocking it and avoiding status symbols. i. e. frayed edges of denim clothing, wins with irreverent labels Chapter 14: Age Sub cultures Subculture: group whose members share beliefs and common experiences that set them apart from others Microculture: a subset of subculture, which is based on lifestyle or aesthetic preference Age and Consumer Identity * era in which we grow up bonds us will millions of others from the same age * identity may become stronger when the beliefs/goals of one age group conflict with another * Age cohort: group of consumers of same/approximate age who have gone through similar exp. Marketers often target products to specific age cohort b/c possessions play key role in identity with others of a certain age and express priorities/needs of each life stage * Multigenerational Marketing Strategy: use imagery that appeals ;1 generation Chapter 15: Canadian Identity and Ethnic Subcultures Ethnic Subculture: self-perpetuating group of consumers who share common cultural/genetic ties recognized by both its members and others as a distinct category High-Context Culture: group members tend to be tightly knit, infer meanings that go beyond spoken word. x. symbols, gestures carry much more weight than spoken word (Koreans respecting elders) Low-Context culture: more literal. like Caucasians as opposed to minorities De-ethnicitization: occurs when detaches from roots (original ethnicity) and appeals to other subcultures Ethnicity as a moving target * becoming harder to target distinct ethnic groups: greater immigration and interracial marriage and cultural blending * Ethnic Stereotypes: you know what it is. Negative feedback in recent use Level of Acculturation: Acculturation: process of movement and adaptation to a cultural environment from another * Movement: factors that motivate people to uproot themselves physically from one to another place * Translation: to master a set of rules for operating in a new environment (fashion, social meaning) * Adaptation: process of forming new consumption patterns * assimilation: adopting new products, habits, and values identified wi th mainsteam culture * maintenance: retaining practices associated with culture of origin * resistance: resent pressure to submerge their cultural identities and take on new roles * Raymond Ng's five phases of adjustment * Honeymoon: immigrant marvels at wonders of new environment * Culture Shock: reality of situation sets in * Superficial Adjustment: immigrant forays into new culture/manages day2day life * Stress and Depression: immigrant disparages aspects of new life: lack of high paying job opportunities, taxes, cold and wet weather. Intergenerational conflicts arise, often over career choices of kids * Integration: immigrant moves through society with degree of ase comparable to that of native born * Progressive Learning Model: assumes that people gradually learn new culture as they increasingly come in contact with it. Therefore, mix original culture with host culture Chapter 16: Cultural Influences on Consumer Behaviour UNDERSTANDING CULTURE: * culture – abstract ideas and material objects/services making up a society’s personality – determines the overall priorities s/he attaches to different activities and products – mandates the success/failure of specific products/services – a product that provides benefits consistent with those desired by members of a culture at a particular time has a much better chance of attaining acceptance in the marketplace * aspects of culture: ecology – the way in which a system is adapted to its habitat; this area is shaped by the technology used to obtain and distribute resources * social structure – the way in which orderly social life is maintained; includes dominant domestic and political groups * ideology – mental characteristics of a people and the way in which they relate to their environment and social groups; revolves around the belief that members of a society possess a common worldview and share ethos (a set of moral principles and aesthetic principles) Cul ture: is a concept to understand consumer behavior as society’s personality. It includes: Abstract ideas, Material objects and service. * Culture is the lens through which people view product. The relationship between consumer behavior and culture is two way street. Products relates to priorities of a culture being accepted more by consumer * Product, successfully produced by culture, provide a window onto the dominant cultural ideal of that period Culture system contains 3 functional areas 1. Ecology: which a system adapted to its habitat. 2. Social structure: the way which orderly social life is maintained. 3. Ideology: the mental characters of a people relate to their environment and social groups. Different dimensions on culture 1. Power distance – how much power 2. Uncertainly avoidance – degree people feel threatened 3. Masculinity and femininity – gender roles 4. Individualism – individual vs groupNorms – rules dictating what is right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable * Enacted norms – explicitly decided upon * Crescive norms – imbedded in a culture and discovered through interaction with other members of that culture * Custom – norm handed down from the past that controls basic behavior, such as division of labour in a household, or practice of particular ceremonies * When to eat * More – custom with strong moral overtone, often involves a taboo, or forbidden behavior, such as incest or cannibalism * What kind of food is permissible to eat * Convention – norms regarding the conduct of everyday life, correct way to furnish house, wear clothes, host a dinner party * how to eat the food Myth and ritualsMyth: is a story containing symbolic elements that express the shared emotions and ideals of a culture * Often features some kind of conflict between two opposing forces, outcome serves as a moral guide for people * Provides guidelines about their world Functions of myths * Meta physical – explain origin of existence * Cosmological – emphasize all components of the universe are part of a single picture * Sociological – maintain social order by authorizing a social code to be followed by members of a culture * Psychological – provides models for personal conduct Monomyth – common to many cultures Ritual: is a set of multiple, symbolic behaviors that occur in a fixed sequence and tend to be repeated periodically Ritual Artifacts: items used n the performance of rituals – to consumers, ex. birthday candles, diamond rings Types of ritual * Grooming rituals – purpose ranging from inspiring confidence before confronting the world to cleansing the body of dirt and other profane materials * Gift giving rituals – promotion of appropriate gifts for every conceivable holiday and occasion, three stages * 1. During gestation, giver is motivated by an event to procure a gift * 2. Presentation or process of gift exch ange * 3. Reformulation, bonds between the giver and receiver are adjust to reflect the new relationship that emerges * Re-gifting is unwanted * Holiday rituals Rites of passage: a special times marked by a change in social status, three phases * Separation – detaches from original group or status, ex. leave home for school * Liminality – person literally in between status, ex. arrival on campus tries to figure out what is happing in O week * Aggregation – when person re-enters society after the rite of passage is complete, ex. returns home for summer vacation as university â€Å"veteran† Sacred and Profane Consumption Sacred Consumption – involves objects and events that are set apart from normal activities and are treated with degree of respect awe Profane Consumption – Involves consumer objects are ordinary, everyday things we do Domains of Sacred Consumption Scared places – set apart by society because they have religious or mysti cal significant, or because commemorate some aspect of a country’s heritage * Home can be sacred place, represents a crucial distinction between the harsh, external world and consumers â€Å"inner space† * People – idolized and set apart from the masses, ex. celebrities * Event – world sports is sacred and almost assumes the status of religion, ex. Olympics * Souvenirs are big industry Desacralization: occurs when a scared item or symbol is removed from its special place becoming profane as a result * Can be religion itself, the crosses are in mainstream fashion, Christmas is more materialistic Sacralisation: When events, people take on scared meaning to a culture or a group within a culture, ex. Stanley cup, or collections Chapter 17: The Creation and Diffusion of CultureCultural Selection – how the culture in which we live creates the meanings for everyday products and how these meanings move through a society to consumers * Linking back to Chapt er 1, people buy things for what they mean, not what they do * Though it seems like we have so many choices, our options only represent a small portion * Selection of certain alternatives is the culmination of a complex filtration process resembling a funnel * Cultural selection – many possibilities initially compete for adoption slowly winnowed down to make their way along the path from conception to consumption * Our tastes and product preferences not formed in a vacuum, * Choices are driven by images presented in mass media, observations of those around us, our desire to live in a fantasy world created by marketers * Constantly evolving and changing – what is hot one year may be out the next * Characteristics of fashion and popular culture include: * Styles often rooted in and reflect deeper societal trends, ex. olitics and social conditions * Styles usually originate as an interplay between deliberate inventions of designers and businesspeople and the spontaneous a ctions of ordinary people, help fuel fire by encouraging mass distribution (those anticipate what consumers want succeed) * Trends can travel widely, often between countries and continents * Influential people in the media play a large role in deciding which trends succeed * Style begins as a risky or unique statement by a relatively small group of people spread to others increase aware of the style feel confident about trying it * Most styles eventually wear out, as people continually search for new ways to express themselves and markers try to keep up * Cultural selection process never stops, when styles become obsolete others wait to replace them in popular culture Culture Production Systems – set of individuals and organizations responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product * No single designer, company or ad agency is totally responsible for creating popular culture, may different factors * Important factors include the number and diversity of competing syste ms and the among of innovation vs. conformity that is encouraged Components of a CPS – has three major subsystems: 1. Creative subsystem – responsible for generating new symbols or products ex. singer 2.Managerial subsystem – responsible for selecting, making tangible , mass producing, and managing the distribution of new symbols or products, ex. producer/distributor of CD 3. Communication subsystem – responsible for giving meaning to new products and providing them with symbolic sets of attributes that are communicated to consumers, ex. advertising agencies hired to promote music Cultural Gatekeepers – judges or â€Å"testmakers† influence the product that are eventually offered to consumers * Filter the overflow of information and material intended for consumers, ex. movie, restaurant, car reviewers * Collectively called – throughput sector Changed from top-down to bottom up, companies listen to everyday consumers; due to factors su ch as social networking * We now live in consumerspace – where customers act as partners with companies to decide what the marketplace will offer * Xerox uses voice of the consumer data in its R&D – feedback from end customers well before it put new product on the market * First make prototype, then gets feed back â€Å"customer-led innovation† High Culture and Popular Culture * Culture production systems create many diverse kinds of products, basic distinctions through characteristics * Art Product – viewed primarily as an object of aesthetic contemplation without an functional value * Original, subtle, and valuable elite of society * Craft Product – admired because of beauty with which it performs some function, ex. ceramic ashtray * Permits rapid production High Art vs. Low Art (high and low culture) * We assume rich have culture and poor do not * Blended together in interesting ways, ex. fine art at Costco * We appreciate advertising as an art form The arts are big business, marketers often incorporate high art to promote products Cultural Formulae * Mass culture churns out products specifically for a mass market * Aiming to please average tastes of undifferentiated audience * Predictable because they follow certain patterns * Usually a formula followed because roles and props occur consistently * This means that we â€Å"recycle† images * Creative subsystem members reach back through time and remix the past, ex. Gilligan’s Island Brandy Bunch Reality Engineering – elements of popular culture are used and converted to promotional strategies * Many consumer environments have images/characters spawned by marketing campaigns or are retreads, ex.Real like Kwik-E-Mart * Hard to tell what is real – â€Å"new vintage† (used jeans) * Cultivation hypothesis – media’s ability to distort consumers’ perception of reality * Media tend to exaggerate or distort the frequency of beh aviours such as drinking and smoking Product Placement – inserting real products in movies, ex. E. T and Reese’s pieces Advergaming – online games merge with interactive advertisements that let companies target specific type of customers Plinking – embedding a product or service link in video (you-tube) The Diffusion of Innovations – process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through a population * New products and styles constantly enter the market * Occur both consumer and industrial setting Form of clothing, new manufacturing technique or novel way to deliver a service * If innovation is successful it spreads through the population * First bought or used by few people more and more consumers decided until everyone has bought or tried innovation Adopting Innovations * Resembles decision-making sequence, moves stages of: Awareness, information search, evaluation, trial, and adoption * Importance depends on how much is already known ab out product as a well as cultural factors that affect people’s willingness to try new things * Not al people adopt an innovation at the same rate (some never do) * Consumers can be placed into categories based on likelihood of adopting to innovation can be related to product-life-cycle) * 1/6th of population very quick to adopt new products (innovators and early adopters), 1/6th are very slow (laggards) * 2/3rds are somewhere in the middle majority represent mainstream public * interested in new things, but do not want them to be too new, wait for technology to improve, or price to fall * Innovators – brave souls, first to try new offering (maybe innovator on one thing, laggard in another) ex. fashion, vs. recording technology, highly educated, and high income levels, and socially active * Early Adopters – share similar characteristics, but difference is – degree of concern for social acceptance (20% of pop. ), use magazines to learn about new trendsTypes of Innovations – can be categorized in terms of degree to which they demand change in behavior from adopters, three categories: * Continuous innovation – modification of existing product, set one brand apart from competitors, most products this type, evolutionary * Small changes made to position, to add line extensions, or merely alleviate consumer boredom * Dynamically continuous innovation – more pronounced change in an existing product, ex. touch-tone telephones, creating some behavior change * Discontinuous innovation – major change in the way we live, ex. airplane, car, TV Prerequisites for Successful Adoption – several factors required for new product to succeed * Compatibility – compatible with consumers’ lifestyle * Trialability – more likely to adopt of they can experiment with it prior to commitment, reduce risk, ex. ree â€Å"trial-size† samples * Complexity – should be low in complexity, easier to und erstand chosen over competitor * Observability – innovation easily observable, more likely to spread, ex. visible fanny packs * Relative Advantage – most important, should offer relative advantage over alternatives The Fashion System – consist of all those people and organization involved in creating symbolic meaning and transferring those meanings to cultural goods * Fashion affects all type of cultural phenomena, including music, art, architecture, and even science * Fashion as code/language for meanings * Terms * Fashion – process of social diffusion by which a new style is adopted by some group(s) of consumers * A fashion(style) – particular ombination of attributes * In fashion – this combination is currently positively evaluated by some reference group Cultural Categories – How we characterize the world reflects the meaning we impart to products * Culture makes distinctions between different times, leisure and work, and gender * Dominant aspects/themes of culture are reflected in design/marketing of items * Costumes of politicians, rock/movie stars * 1950s/60s: â€Å"space-age† mastery * Fashion colours for each season * Creative subsystems attempt to anticipate the tastes of the buying public * Collective selection – process in which certain symbolic alternatives are chosen over others, ex. New Wave, Danish Modern, The Western Look, Nouvelle CuisineBehavioural Science Perspectives on Fashion – major approaches to fashion * Psychological Models of Fashion – explain why people are motivated to be in fashion * Includes conformity, variety seeking, personal creativity, and sexual attention, ex. consumers seek need for uniqueness, want to be different, but not too different (conform to basic guidelines but improvise and make personal statements) * Also early theory of fashion â€Å"shifting erogenous zones accounted for fashion change, different zones become the object of interest because they reflect societal trends (pg. 536) * Economic models of Fashion – terms of supply and demand * Items limited supply have high value, while readily available are less desired (rare items command respect and prestige) * Ex. wear expensive clothing to show prosperity Though in contrast – parody display 0 which they deliberately adopt low-status or inexpensive products * Prestige-exclusivity effect – high prices create high demand * Snob effect – lower prices actually reduce demand (if its cheap it isn’t good) * Sociological Models of Fashion – focuses on initial adoption of fashion by subculture and is diffusion into society as a whole * Ex. Goth culture into mainstream or hip – hop * * Trickle-down theory – important! * States that there are two conflicting forces that drive fashion change 1. Subordinate groups try to adopt the status symbols of groups above them – try to climb the later of social mobility (thu s dominant styles originate with upper classes and trickle down) 2. Those superordinate groups are constantly looking below them on the ladder to ensure they are not imitated, they adopt newer fashions * Self-perpetuating cycle of change of fashion Harder in modern times because of new developments in mass culture * Advance in technology to make people instantly aware of latest styles and trends * Each social group has own fashion innovator, trickle-across effect – fashion diffused horizontally among members of same social group * Current fashions often originate with lower classes, trickle up- less concern with maintaining status quo, more free time to innovate, take risks A â€Å"Medical† Model of Fashion – why do style diffuse through the population so quickly? * Meme theory explains the idea, meme – idea/product that enters the consciousness of people over time – includes tunes, catchphrases, or styles like Hush Puppies * Memes spread among con sumers in a geometric progression, like a virus, starts off small and steadily infects increasing number of people until it becomes epidemic * Leap from brain to brain via processes of imitation To survive must be distinctive and memorable * Tipping point – when process reaches the moment of critical mass Cycles of Fashion Adoption * Fashion cycle – much similar to product life cycle, progresses through birth to death * Fashion acceptance cycle * Introduction stage – a song is listened to by smaller number of music innovators * Acceptance stage – song enjoys increased social visibility and accepted by large segments of population, wide airplay on Top 40 Stations * Regression stage – item reaches a state of social saturation, becomes overused, sinks into decline and new songs take its place * Different classes of fashions can be identified by considering relative ength of the fashion acceptance cycle * Classic – fashion with extremely long ac ceptance cycle, low risk * Fad – very short-lived fashion, usually adopted by relatively few people, trickles across common subculture, rarely breaks out of specific group, ex. hula hoops, snap bracelets, and pet rocks, or streaking in mid -1970s * Non-utilitarian – not performed any meaningful function * Adopted on impulse * Diffused rapidly, gains quick acceptance, and is short-lived Fad or Trend * Guidelines for long-term trends: * Fits with basic lifestyle changes * A real benefit should be evident * Can be personalized * Not a side effect or a carryover effect * Important market segments adopt change